47. Classification of phraseological units

The term "phraseological unit" was introduced by Soviet linguist (Виноградов) and it's generally accepted in this country. It is aimed at avoiding ambiguity with other terms, which are generated by different approaches, are partially motivated and non-motivated.

The first classification of phraseological units was advanced for the Russian language by a famous Russian linguist Виноградов. According to the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units can be classified into three big groups: phraseological collocations (сочетания), phraseological unities (единства) and phraseological fusions (сращения).

Phraseological collocations are not motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used metaphorically (e.g. to break the news, to attain success).

Phraseological unities are completely motivated as their meaning is transparent though it is transferred (e.g. to shoe one’s teeth, the last drop, to bend the knee).

Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated and stable (e.g. a mare’s nest (путаница, неразбериха; nonsense), tit-for-tat – revenge, white elephant – expensive but useless).

But this classification doesn’t take into account the structural characteristic, besides it is rather subjective.

Prof. Смирнитский treats phraseological units as word’s equivalents and groups them into: (a) one-summit units => they have one meaningful component (to be tied, to make out); (b) multi-summit units => have two or more meaningful components (black art, to fish in troubled waters).

Within each of these groups he classifies phraseological units according to the part of speech of the summit constituent. He also distinguishes proper phraseological units or units with non-figurative meaning and idioms that have transferred meaning based on metaphor (e.g. to fall in love; to wash one’s dirty linen in public).

This classification was criticized as inconsistent, because it contradicts the principle of idiomaticity advanced by the linguist himself. The inclusion of phrasal verbs into phraseology wasn't supported by any convincing argument.

Prof. Амазова worked out the so-called contextual approach. She believes that if 3 word groups make up a variable context. Phraseological units make up the so-called fixed context and they are subdivided into phrases and idioms.

49. Thematic or etymological classification

is based on the traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units - according to their original content.

Detailed groupings are given in the books on English idioms by L.P. Smith and W. Ball. The authors show interest in the origin and etymology of English phrases and arrange them accordingly into phrases from sea life, from agriculture, from hunting, from sports. The authors understand the term ‘etymology’ as the source of origin, ‘source’ referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural phenomena, etc.

L.P. Smith makes a special study of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a relatively small part of his classification. The general principle of the classification is rather thematic. When we speak about the etymology of a word–group we mean whether it is native or borrowed, and if borrowed, what is the source of borrowing.

The richness of language material makes these practical manuals of everyday phrases very valuable for those interested in learning or teaching English.

L.P. Smith points out that word–groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. This can be explained, perhaps, by the fact that the profession of a seaman is one of the oldest in England and England is a naval power. Most of the so-called sea phraseological units have long since developed metaphorical meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors, e.g. between the four seas ‘in Great Britain’; to go by long sea ‘to go by steamer’, half seas over ‘to be drunk’.

The thematic principle of classifying phraseological units does not take into consideration the linguistic characteristic features of the phraseological units.

50. Local dialects are varieties of English peculiar to some districts, used as means of oral communication in small localities; they possess no normalized literary form.

Variants of English in the United Kingdom

Scottish English and Irish English have a special linguistic status as compared with dialects because of the literature composed in them.

Variants of English outside the British Isles

Outside the British Isles there are distinguished the following variants of the English language: American English, Canadian English, Australian English, New Zealand English, South African English, Indian English and some others. Each of these has developed a literature of its own, and is characterized by peculiarities in phonetics, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.

51. The English language has many different dialects and accents. AuthorHouse lists the different English dialects in the U.K., Ireland and the U.S.

Let’s begin in the U.K. In the North of England there are quite number of dialects. In the far north, the dialect is similar to Scots. The following are also regional dialects: Cheshire, Cumbrian, Geordie, Lancastrian, Mackem from Sunderland, Mancunian-Salfordian from Manchester and Salford, Northumbrian from Northumberland, Pitmatic from Durham and Northumberland, Scouse from Liverpool, and Yorkshire.

Then, there are the dialects from the East Midlands, the West Midlands, including Black Country English, Brummie from Birmingham, Potteries from Staffordshire,  the Telford accent, and East Anglian, including the Norfolk and Suffolk dialects. In Southern England, we have Received Pronunciation, also known as The Queen’s English, the King’s English or BBC English, Cockney, the Essex dialect, Estuary from the Thames Estuary, Kentish and the Sussex dialect. In the West Country there are the Anglo-Cornish and Bristolian dialects. We also have the dialects from the outlying islands, such as Manx English from the Isle of Man, and Guernsey and Jersey English from the Channel Islands.

In Scotland, we have Highland English, Glaswegian from Glasgow, Scots which is actually a sister language and the Doric dialect. In Wales, there are the Welsh English dialects including the Cardiff and Swansea dialects and in Northern Ireland, we have Mid Ulster English, including the Belfast and Derry dialects, Ulster Scots and South Ulster English. In the Republic of Ireland, people speak Hiberno-English or Irish English which includes the Dublin, Cork, Waterford, Kerry, Connacht, Sligo and Galway dialects, Rural Munster including the Tipperary, Limerick Clare and Waterford dialects, North Leinster, South Leinster and Donegal dialects.

In Europe, there is also Maltese English dialect. Malta has two official languages, English and Maltese.

Now, let’s move on to the U.S. where there are also many dialects, including Pennsylvania Dutch English, New England English which includes the Boston and Boston Brahmin accents, Hudson Valley English, Lake Dialect or Lake Talk and Inland Northern American English. We also have the Mid-Atlantic Dialects which include the Baltimore and Philadelphia dialects, Pittsburgh English, and the New York and New Jersey dialects.