3. Sounds and phonemes

Speech sounds are grouped into language units called phonemes. A phoneme may be thought of as the smallest contrastive language unit which exists in the speech of all people belonging to the same language community in the form of speech sounds and may bring about a change of meaning.

The phoneme is a functional unit. That means that being opposed to other phonemes in the same phonetic context it is capable of differentiating the meaning, eg:

-Pie-tie

-Lot-lit

-Are you fond of this cut?

-Are you fond of this cart?

The phoneme is realized in speech in the material form of speech sounds of different type. Various speech realizations of the phoneme are called its allophones. The difference between the allophones of the same phoneme is due to their position in various phonetic contexts.

Articulatory features which are common to all the allophones of the same phoneme and are capable of differentiating the meaning are called distinctive.

Vowels and consonants

The organs of speech are capable of uttering many different kinds of sounds. From the practical point of view it is convenient to distinguish two types of speech sounds: vowels and conso­nants. Vowels are voiced sounds produced without any ob­struction in the supra-glottal cavities and consequently have no noise component. In the articulation of consonants a kind of noise producing obstruction is formed in the supra-glottal cav­ities. Such sounds may be pronounced with or without vocal cords vibration.

4.Consonants.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

Consonants are made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavities. Consonants are the bones of a word and give it its basic shape.

On the articulatory level the consonants change:

1.In the degree of noise.

2.In the manner of articulation.

3.In the place of articulation.

According to the degree of noise English consonants are divided in to two big classes:

A.Noise Consonants

B.Sonorants

A. Noise consonants sounds vary:

1.In the work of the vocal cords

2.The degree of force of articulation

According the work of the vocal cords they may be voiceless and voiced.

Voiced consonants are: [b,d,g,v,z, dg, ð].

Voiceless consonants are :[p,t,k,f, θ,s,sh, tʃ].

B. Sonorants are made with tone prevailing over noise because of a rather wide air passage. They are: [m,n, ŋ,w,l,r,j].

3.THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION

According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of 4 groups:

1.Occlusive

2.Constrictive

3.Occlusive-constrictive (affricates)

4.Rolled.

1. .Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth.

Occlusive voiced consonants are: the English [b, d, g].

Occlusive voiceless consonants are: the English [p, t, k|.

Occlusive consonants may be PLOSIVES

Occlusive consonants may be SONORANTS or NASAL

2. Constrictive consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted. Both noise consonants and sonorants may be constrictive.

Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives.

The English fricatives: [f, v, s, z, h].

The English voiced fricatives: [v, d, z, 3].

The English voiceless fricatives: [f, s, h].

Constrictive consonants may be NOISE or FRICATIVES

Constrictive consonants may be SONORANTS or ORAL

3. Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates are noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only two occlusive-constrictives in English: [tf,dz] . The English [dz] is voiced and weak; [tf] is voiceless and strong .

Occlusive-constrictive (affricates) are noise

4. .Rolled consonants are sounds pronounced with periodical momentary obstructions when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the teeth ridge and vibrates in the air stream. (They are the Russian [p, p']).

4.THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION

The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation. In the first case consonants are called unicentral, in the second they are bicentral.

a) According to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation (place of articulation) consonants may be:

1.Labial

2.Lingual

3.Glottal

1.Labial consonants are made by the lips.

Labial may be BILABIAL and LABIO-DENTAL.

BILABIAL – [p,b,m,w]

LABIO-DENTAL – [f,v]

2.Lingual may be FORELINGUAL, MEDIOLINGUAL, BACKLINGUAL.

Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue.

FORELINGUAL may be APICAL(if the tip of the tongue is active) ,CACUMINAL(if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge,but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue) and DORSAL(if the blade of the tongue takes part in the articulation, the tip being passive and lowered)

APICAL –[t,d,s,z, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ, ʒ,n,l, ð, θ]

CACUMINAL –[r]

DORSAL-in English there are no dorsal consonants.

b) According to the place of obstruction FORELINGUAL consonants may be:

Interdental (are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth-[ð, θ])

Dental (are produce with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth)

Alveolar (are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge-[t,d,s,z,n,l]

Post – alveolar (are made when the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it-[r])

Palato – alveolar (are made when the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation-[ tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ])

MEDIOLINGUAL or PALATAL (produce with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate-[j])

BACKLINGUAL or VELAR (are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate-[k,g, ŋ])

THE GLOTTAL –[h].