23. Beowulf: alliteration, caesura, kennings

‘Beowulf’ is often referred to as the first important work of literaturein English, even though it was written in Old English, an ancient form of the language that slowly evolved into the English now spoken. Compared to modern English, Old English is heavily Germanic, with little influence from Latin or French. An English history developed, after the French Normans conqured the Anglo-Saxons in 1066, Old English was gradually broadened by offerings from those languages. Thus modern English is derived from a number of sources. As a result, its vocabulary is rich with synonyms. The word ‘kingly’, for instance, descends from the Anglo-Saxon word ‘cyning’, meaning ‘king’, while the synonym ‘royal’ comes from a French word and the synonym ‘regal’ from a Latin word.

Because Anglo-Saxon poetry existed in oral tradition long before it was writted down, the verse form contains complicated rules for alliteration designed to help scops remember the many thousands of lines they were required to know by heart. Each of the two halves of an Anglo-Saxon line contains two stressed syllables, and an alliterative pattern must be carried over across the caesura. Any of the stressed syllables may aliterate except the last syllable; so the first and second syllables may alliterate alone , or the second and third may alliterate alone.

In addition to these rules, Old English poetry often features a distinctive set of rhetorical devices. The most common is the kenning, used throughout ‘Beowulf’. A kenning is a short metaphorical description of a thing used in a place of the thing’s name; thus a ship may be called a ‘sea-rider’, or a king a ‘ring-giver’. Some translations employ kennings almost as frequently as they appear in the original. Others moderate the use of kennings in deference to a modern sensibilty. But the Old English version of the epic is full of them, and they are perhaps the most important rhetorical device present in Old English poetry

24. Beowulf: The Battle with Grendel: plot, the image of the protagonist ad the image of monster

Beowulf begins with the story of King Hroðgar, who constructed the great hall Heorot for his people. In it he, his wife Wealhþeow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, until Grendel, a troll-like monster who is pained by the noise, attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hroðgar's warriors while they sleep. But Grendel does not touch the throne of Hroðgar, for it is described as protected by a powerful god. Hroðgar and his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot.

Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar.

Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. Beowulf bears no weapon because this would be an "unfair advantage" over the unarmed beast. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall and attacks, devouring one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf has been feigning sleep and leaps up to clench Grendel's hand. The two battle until it seems as though the hall might collapse. Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades can not pierce Grendel's skin. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes to die