Definition of the Object

One of the differential features of the object is its correlation with the subject. Just like the subject, the object is expressed by a noun or a noun equivalent. In the process of the passive transformation, the object usually becomes the subject of a passive construction, e.g.:

Bell invented the telephone (V. Evans). — The telephone was invented by Bell (V. Evans).

They didn't offer Ann the job (R. Murphy). — Ann wasn't offered the job (R. Murphy). The job wasn't offered to Ann (R. Murphy).

Perhaps, that is the reason why O. Jespersen defines both the subject and the object as primary words connected with the verb of the sentence. A primary word is not subordinated to any other word. The subject meets this requirement. The object does not, for the object depends on the predicate-verb not only semantically but also formally. The signs of formal dependence are as follows:

1) the use of personal pronouns in the oblique objective case,

e.g.:

You surprise me (A. Christie);

2) the bound nature of some prepositions in prepositional objects, e.g.:

He insisted on speaking to her (W.S. Maugham).

Classifications of Objects

The problem of classifying objects is even more debatable. G. Curme takes form as a starting point. He mentions four types of objects:

1) accusative objects,

2) dative objects,

3) genitive objects,

4) prepositional objects.

G. Curme's classification is based on different principles. While drawing a distinction between the first three types of objects (accusative, dative, and genitive), G. Curme applies a morphological criterion; prepositional objects are singled out by him on the basis of a syntactic criterion. The predominant use of a morphological criterion in classifying such syntactic phenomena as objects is hardly justified, especially if we take into consideration that in Modern English neither nouns nor pronouns have special forms for the accusative and dative cases.

H. Poutsma's classification of objects is more consistent in this respect. He makes use of a syntactic criterion only, dividing all objects into two classes:

1) prepositional objects, e.g.: She smiled at me (D. Robins);

2) non-prepositional objects, e.g.: Poirot returned the letter (A. Christie).

The formal syntactic criterion, however, does not work either. In the first place, all secondary parts of the sentence, not only objects, can be prepositional and non-prepositional. In the second place, there exist no meaningless forms.

While classifying objects, H. Sweet takes into consideration both meaning and form. He distinguishes:

1) direct objects,

2) indirect objects,

3) prepositional objects.

Thus, in the sentence He showed me his book (R. Lardner), me is an indirect object, book is a direct object; while the combination to my friend in the sentence / wrote a letter to my friend here (A. Christie) is a prepositional object

The main drawback of H. Sweet's classification lies in the fact that the criteria of meaning and form in it do not interpenetrate. Direct and indirect objects are distinguished primarily on a semantic principle {Кому? - Что?); prepositional objects are singled out on a purely formal principle.

Semantic classification of objects is suggested by LP. Ivanova, V.V. Burlakova and G.G. Potcheptsov. They draw a distinction between 5 semantic types of objects, each of which has a number of formal characteristics.

1. Affected object (дополнение объекта) denoting a person or thing affected by an action or directly involved in an action. Affected objects can be non-prepositional and prepositional. Cf:

I looked but could see nothing (M. Swan). A cat may look at a king (L. Carroll), There can be two affected objects in a sentence, e.g.: Ask him his name (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).

Two affected objects occur after the following verbs: ask, answer, take, envy, hear, forgive, etc.

2. Recipient object (дополнение адресата) denoting a person for whose benefit an action is performed or towards whom it is directed. Recipient objects can also be bom non-prepositional and prepositional. Cf:

The manager offered David a job (V. Evans).

The manager offered a job to David (V. Evans).

A recipient object cannot be used without an affected object. A non-prepositional recipient object comes before an affected object; a prepositional recipient object comes after an affected object. Cf.:

Give me the tickets (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).

Give the tickets to me (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).

3. Agent object (дополнение деятеля) denoting the doer of an action expressed by a verb in the passive voice. It is always introduced by the preposition by, e.g.:

This house was built by my grandfather (R. Murphy).

He was killed by a heavy stone (M. Swan). <= A heavy stone fell and killed him.>

4. Instrumental object (дополнение инструмента) denoting a tool using which the agent performed a certain action. The instrumental object is used both in active and passive sentences. It is always introduced by the preposition with. Cf:

f killed the spider with a newspaper (M. Swan). He was killed with a heavy stone (M. Swan). <= Somebody used a heavy stone to kill him. >

5. Cognate object (родственное дополнение) repeating the meaning of the predicate-verb. A cognate object is either of the same root as the predicate-verb or is similar to it in meaning. Cf.:

I dreamed a strange dream (Ch.J. Fillmore). Tom ran a race (W.L. Chafe).

Cognate objects are used after intransitive verbs. If mere is a cognate object in the sentence, other kinds of objects cannot be used in it.

THE ADVERBIAL