Stylistic stratification of neologisms

Any social conduct, including the language activity is regulated by rules. As stylistic stratification of neologisms is based on the pragmatic rules which impose the limitation on the use of lexical units, it is necessary to keep to the chart structure of lexical meaning of a word, developed by M.B.Nikitin.

In his monograph "Lexical meaning in word and combination of word" he praves that in the content of a word it is pointed out the intension (kernel of meaning); implication (all stereotype associations which are traditionally connected with the denotation), emotion (subjectively-accessed component: feeling tone, emotive valeur). The components of word meaning can be correlated with any three aspects of meaning. If they are correlated with intension, denotative inclination of a word outlines the spheres of its adequate usage, the circle of possible situations of intercourse. For example, the detonative specifics of the words applet, add-in limits their usage by the scopes of the situations linked with the use of computer. Pragmatic components can be localized in the implication of meaning. For example, it is necessary to know for the correct use of word babe (an attractive girl or young woman) that the components of this type encode the social, age-old, sexual, ethnic parameters of speakers, their role relations. And finally, given components can be correlated with the emotion of meaning and expressed through the mark in the dictionary (pejorative, mocking, ironical, derogatory), through the emotionally-painted word building elements, through the assessed words in definition. These pragmatic components encode such parameters of situational variation as the tone of situation of intercourse, intention of the linguist. According to this it is possible to distinguish three large layers in a new vocabulary:

1) words with intensional pragmatic components;

2) words with emotional pragmatic components;

3) words with implicational pragmatic components.

Semantical models of coinage of neologisms

Among the researchers there is no the only thought about the status of semantic innovations. Criteria, according to which it is possible to distribute the semantic changes on those which conduce to appearance of an independent word, and those which result is the appearance of a new meaning in already existent lexical unit aren't developed till now. The hypothesis that semantic word creation consists in reinterpretation of previous words and in forming of homonyms by disintegration of word in two ones is the only offered way out from this situation.

It follows that about complement, independent lexical unit it is possible to speak only in the case when the semantic changes of the polysemantic word where brought to the complete gap of the community of the semantic connection between the separate meanings of the word, that is to the formation of the homonym with the absolutely different meaning. But this thought is not often adopted because there are no objectively certain algorythms of referring of innovations to the homonyms. From the other side, some authors eliminate semantic innovations considerating neologisms at all. Nevertheless nowadays two ways of studying of semantic neologisms were set in our time: 1) distinguishing of semantic word building models and establishment of formal criteria of grant to innovations the status of new word-homonyms. 2) the analysis examination of the results of the semantic transformations as the new meanings in the semantic structure of existed lexemes.

It's worth mentioning that at differentiation of concepts "formation of word" and "formation of meaning" the change of lexico-grammatical description of a word is necessary to point out that if a word passes to the other lexico-grammatical digit, the question is about lexico-semantical word-building. For example, the word "squeegee" the old meaning of which is "rubber-edged implement set on a handle and used for cleaning window" and the new meaning of it is "a person who cleans the window screen of a car stopped in traffic and solicits payment from the driver".

Both meanings are incorporated by the same semantic "cleaning windows" but transition of a word in other lexico-grammatical category is needed to consider as a result of lexico-semantical word building. It means that words are independent lexical units (homonyms).

However such perspective on the whole, approach to the question about the lexico-semantical word-building has the row of lacks: a) more or less clear determination of concept of differentiating lexico-semantical sings, that assumes subjectivism at the division of words on lexico-grammatical classes is absent; b) the mechanism of semantic transformations is not taken into consideration, as a result some innovations, got by an identical way can be set in the digit of words, and others – in the digit of meanings; c) the durability of the semantic communication which can be between the meaning of polysemantic word, considerably stronger than lexico-grammatical sings is not taken into account.

Most researches adhere to the point of view, that in all cases, where the semantic connection between the meanings of polysemantic word is kept, if should be considered as word-lexeme, that contains the certain amount of lexico-semantical variants (or meanings). It is up to the status of the semantic new formations too, which are the lexico-semantical variants of a word.

On the whole, the semantic method of nomination belongs to those phenomena in the language, which are not considerd to synonymous interpretation. It is obviously explained that the talk is about semantic processes which belong to semasiology and onomasiology at the same time.

The formation of homonyms in their classic understanding is rather rare phenomenon, if to examine the word building for the short span of time. It is possible to give such examples of neologisms: to zap - to make more powerful, exciting or lively; to revitalize; to spice or pep up, while the previous meaning of the word 1) to kill; 2) to break; 3) to take aback; to veg - to pass the time in vacuous inactivity, while the first meaning "to veg" - "to vegetate"; rock - a crystallized form of cocaine which is smoked for its stimulating effects, where the initial meaning of the word was: 1) a cliff, a mountain; 2) a stone; 3) swinging; 4) music style; 5) slang - money.

Most semantic neologisms are new lexico-semantical variants of words that formed on the basis of already existent lexical units and are complemented with the lexico-semantical variants of these words. As the elements of the difficult polysemantic structure have hierarchical interdependence, at the analysis of neologisms it is necessary to distinguish the initial meanings in relation to which semantic innovations are derivative. But in the process of semantic nomination not always the main (invariant) meaning is primary. Two basic types of formation of lexico-semantical variants are considered in this connection: 1) the chain one, when the last meaning of the polysemantic word with the semantic structure of subsequent increases comes forward in quality of an initial word; 2) radial, when the basic meaning serves at the initial for all subsequent innovations between which there appears the relation of parallelism.

The example of semantical innovation by a chain method can be neologism "space" (the freedom to think, act, or be oneself) that is coined as a result of the successive evolution of meanings which follow from each other: 1) unused or unfilled gap or area between two or more objects or points; 2) unoccupied area or place available for use; 3) large area (esp. of land not built on); 4) continuous expanse in which all things exist and move; 5) universe beyond the earth's atmosphere in which all other planet and stars exist, that is "distance between two objects" - "unoccupied territory" - "large area (not built up)" - "continuous space" - "freedom (space) for thought and actions".

The example of the radial method can be the coinage of neologism "mule" (a person who acts as a courier for illegal drugs). It arose up parallel with such meanings as: 1) animal that is the offspring of a donkey and horse, used for carrying load and noted for its stubbornness; 2) stubborn person, independent of each other, but combined with the basic meaning "the creature for moving the load".

In the basis of semantical nomination the formal-logical relations are fixed between concepts, which represent certain associations able to appear in a man's consciousness. For the semantical method of nomination such types of relations are relevant: a) subordination of concepts that at the semantic level are expressed in the processes of expansion and narrowing of meaning; b) intersection, that is the basis of semantical process of metaphorical and metonymical transfers.

Semantical neologisms are formed from roots, affixes and difficult lexical units (including word combinations). While analysing the innovations it is also important to distinguish between the use of existent lexemes for the nomination of new objects and phenomena and the usage of this method for vivid, synonymous detonation of objects and phenomena which have already the expressively neutral name. For example, "pen" - a hand-held device used as a writing tool to input commands and data into a computer via a screen versus "kicking" as a synonyms to the words of "exciting", "great", "lively", "excellent.”

There are such semantic processes, except of above enumerated, as worsening and improvement of meaning, which are connected with the change of connotative element of the word meaning.

Narrowing of meaning takes place in accordance with the model: A→ a (where A is the basis of the seme of gender meaning (archiseme), and a - the differentiating seme of the specific meaning). For example, "adventure" - a type of computer game in which the player plays a role in a story involving stimulated danger; an instance of playing this king of game; or a computer slang word "export" - to transfer (data) out of one computer system into another or from one application within a computer to another; in business sphere neologism "niche" is also used in the narrowed meaning - a position from which an entrepreneur is able to exploit a gap in the market; a profitable section of a market; or informal "hole-in-the-wall" that means "a machine usually installed in an outside wall of a bank, which dispenses cash and gives information about a person’s bank account". In the policy of Canada is widely functioned neologism "allophone" - a person, living in a French Canada who speaks a language (and is of ethnic descent) other than French or English.

In prison slang is widely spread the innovation “beast” – a person convicted of a sexual offence, that also shows narrowing or specialization of the meaning.

Expansion of meaning passes according to the model A · a → A. For example, trainspotter in the slang usage gets the generalized meaning “an obsessive follower of any minority interest or specialized hobby”. The other slang lexical unit also shows the expansion of the meaning: “babe” – an attractive young woman; similarly as well as “item” – a couple in romantic or sexual relationship, and “squeegee” – a person, who cleans the windowscreen of a car stopped in traffic and solicits payment from the driver.

The metaphorical transfers consists in the removal or replacement of the basic (genitive) seme (archiseme) at saving of differential (specific seme) which becomes the initial seme of denomination. This type of semantical transformation can be examined as a symmetric relationship of two names with replacement of archisemes. For example, green shoots – signs of growth or renewal, especially of economic recovery. Schematically this metaphorical transfer can be given as A·b (where b – new growth, A – about plants) - B·c (B – new growth, c – about economy). Similar coined neologism “jungle fever” – a burning desire to engage in an interracial sexual relationship. Schematically this transfer is described as: A·b (where A – malaria, b – severe form) - B·c (B – severe, burning desire, c – an interracial relationship).

The model of metaphorical transfer N_{zool →} N_pers is very active in formation of substandard vocabulary, for example, neologism “mule” – a person, who acts as a courier for illegal drugs; “bird” – an attractive young woman or girl.

Some neologisms which are the names of people are formed according to the model: N_obj → N_pers: “squeegee” → a person who cleans the wind screen of car stopped in a traffic and solicits payment from the driver (old meaning – a rubber-edged implement set on a handle used for cleaning windows); “anorak” → a person who pursues an interest with obsessive dedication (old meaning – kind of a jacket).

But it is necessary to distinguish to basic types of metaphorical transfer: 1) metaphorical transfer which is based on the obvious similarity of objects, for example: bubble – a woman’s hair style in which the hair is arranged in a round bubblelike shape; whisker – a thick hair-like crystal of great strength; 2) the metaphorical transfer in the basis of which the association is fixed, connected related with the name of the object: vegetable – a person who is like a vegetable; a lifeless, inert creature.

Metonymy (contiguity of meaning in the basis) is another source of formation of semantical neologisms, however it is not as active as metaphor, for example “air miles” – a consumer incentive scheme under which credits redeemable for free air travel are issued to frequent flyers, or to people taking part in designated transaction; “juice” – a favourable standing position, power of influence.

The metonymical transfers consist in that the basic seme of one word is the component of the second word, thus the relations between elements have asymmetric character. For example “longhair” – a person wearing long hair; “skinhead” – a person wearing closely cropped hair. Neologisms coined by mentonymy are constituents of word combinations: “brain-drain” – the emigration of scientists, scholars; “blue-helmet” – a member of the international military peacekeeping force of the United Nations, whose uniform includes a blue helmet.

Semantical processes which are up to the changes in the denotative component of lexical meaning are expressed through the generalization (expansion of meaning) or concretization (narrowing of meaning). A tendency to narrowing of meaning is observed in the processes of formation of terminology, for example: to import/to export – to transfer (data) into/out of a computer from/into another one; adventure – a type of a computer game in which the player plays a role in a story involving simulated danger. In current words sometimes stylistically marked as a “slang” the process of expansion of meaning can be observed. For example: item – couple in a romantic or sexual relationship; trainspotter – an obsessive follower of minority interest or specialized hobby. In the last case the worsening of meaning is present. Neologism “babe” in the meaning of “an attractive young woman” also shows the expansion of meaning in connection with the appearance in the detonative element of word of new seme. The semantic changes in the connotative component of the meaning mean acquisition by lexical units of negative or positive estimation. These changes of lexical meaning are conditioned by the social factors. For example, word “dude” – old meaning: a swell, a dandy; new meaning – person, a guy, one of the “gang” or neologism “mad” – old meaning: crazy, unwell in head; new meaning – remarkable, unusual, exciting.

“Payoration” of meaning in contrast to “melioration” is more difficult to observe as the majority of stylistically marked word have the certain seme of negative meaning in its lexical meaning. But nevertheless there are instants of worsening of meaning at the formation of neologisms: trainspotter – old meaning: a person with a strange unusual hobby; new meaning – an obsessive follower of any minority interest or specialized hobby. In the gained new meaning this neologisms is used as a scornfull slang word.

Some words which were considered as negative ones now have the opposite positive estimation, are rehabilitated because such type of semantical changes as neutralization. For example neologism “black” in new combination has the positive seme: black is beautiful, black is power.

The instants of new meanings just contrary already existent are also observed. Such meanings are called enuntiosemes. For example: “head” – new meaning: 1) a drug addict (-); 2) a devotee (+).

It is worth marking that the given neologism in both meanings serves initial basis for derivatives which have positive or negative seme in its lexical meaning, for example, basehead (-), headcase (+).

Changes of lexical meaning also include euphemisms or the usage of indirect expressions omission of rough or scornful lexical units in the opinion of a linguist: “otherly abled” or “challenged” – instead of “disabled” or “handicapped”, “a client” instead of “a convict”, “socially disadvantaged” in the meaning of “mentally ill”. In general, euphemisms are rather interesting in the modern linguistics, where there is a tendency to the direct nomination, that is the result of people’s freedom from the great majority of religious prohibitions, their greater relaxation in the moral plan freedom of ethnic additions and reglamentations which are characteristical for nowadays. Therefore it is possible to estimate the tendency of direct nomination is greatly blocked by contrary ability to express one’s thoughts parafrastically.

For the last decades the formation of euphemisms has been taken place according to the typical for English language models. It is first of all the semantical displacements among which the narrowing of meaning according to its wide spread takes the first place, that is the usage of words or word combinations of wide semantic and polysemantical in much narrower meaning. For example: “amateur” in the meaning of “an unprofessional politician”, “golden age” instead of “old age”, “newsreader” in the mean of the “reader of the latest news on the TV or internet”.

Euphemisms-neologisms functioning in different subject – conceptual spheres where the moral factors of tabu and euphemistic replacement act and they are formed with the help of all typical for English language semantical and formal means.

Having looked at different models of the formation of the semantical neologisms it is possible to make certain conclusion. Semantical transfers serve as the means of strengthening of expression of the vocabulary at the expense of new formed more expressed lexical units – synonyms to already existent neutral words. The amount of neologisms on different topical groups depends on the development intensity of the corresponding kinds of people’s activity and on the degree of changes in the way of life of the society. It is worth mentioning that for the last time it gets more complicated to separate exactly terminological and current vocabulary as the wide usage of everyday technique is followed by the penetration of the great amount of the technical words in the everyday vocabulary. Popular-science TV-programs and articles of media also help the appearance of diffusion of words into the everyday colloquial speech. In general, according to the laws of language development there exist mechanisms which regulate the addition and anewing of the vocabulary thanks to the semantical innovations, supporting them in corresponding activity. Some of the new meanings of the old words become an integral part of the language, the others can find the resistance in the language usage.