Final Test for Unit II

Task 1. Provide the pronunciation of the following words:

Quote [________], assertion [_____], paragraph [_____], concise [_______], essay [_______], judgement [_______].

Task 2. Give the Russian for:

argument …….. message ………. to speculate ………...

accuracy ………. thesis ………….. to distort ……………

assertion ……… passage ……….. to make judgement…….

Task 3. Give the English for:

пересказать …………………. содержание ………….

перефразировать …………. . рукопись ……..

передавать (смысл, идеи)…. источник (литературный)……

законный …………………………….

существенный/ важный …………..

Task 4. Chose the words that can be associated with:

a) to distort

facts, ideas, history, knowledge, mind, book, views

b) concise

dictionary, story, map, brevity, person, character, textbook

Task 5. Fill in the gaps with the words from topical vocabulary of this Unit:

1. Paraphrase is your own rendition of ……. information and ideas expressed by someone else, presented in a new form.

2. Also, paraphrase is a …….. way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to …….. from a source.

3. Use ……. marks to identify any unique term or phraseology you have borrowed exactly from the source.

4. Summaries benefit the reader because they offer a …….., general version of the original information.

5. For a busy reader, summaries provide quick overviews of material maintaining the integrity of the original document without ……….. the original views, ideas, attitudes, or their importance in the original.

Unit III. Paragraph Writing

With this Unit you start off in learning the basic techniques of writing and editing in English, which might be useful in your specialisation. The Unit provides some theoretical issues and practical drill on paragraph writing. You start with paragraph structure, next you find out about types of paragraphs, and then you consider the order and try your hand in various methods of paragraph development.

Sentence Level. Topic and Controlling Idea

3.1. Read the following text and write out the definitions of key terms:

A group of sentences that develops one main idea can be viewed as a paragraph developing own topic. Then a topic is the subject of the paragraph; it is what the paragraph is about. The topic of a paragraph is usually introduced in a sentence; this sentence is called the topic sentence. A good topic sentence also states an idea or an attitude about the topic. This idea or attitude is the controlling idea; it controls what the sentences in this paragraph will discuss. All sentences in the paragraph should relate to and develop the controlling idea. For example:

Watching television can become a bad habit.

In this sentence, the topic watching television is controlled by the idea that it can become a bad habit.

The controlling idea should be clear and focused on a particular aspect. Consider the following topic sentence:

Watching television is bad.

Here the topic – television – and the controlling idea – bad – are vague because it is not clear why television is bad. Is watching television bad in general or some programs are meant? For whom or what is it bad? As you see, this topic sentence opens a lot of questions that may require more than one paragraph to answer. This sentence needs more focus, and that focus should come from the controlling idea:

Watching television for long hours is bad for children’s health.

3.2. Underline the topics and circle the controlling ideas in these sentences:

1. Buying works of art can be a good way to invest money.

2. Appearances are deceptive.

3. This course is available to undergraduates.

4. Science and technology are often indispensable for solving environmental problems.

5. Human development should not threaten the integrity of nature.

6. Traditional environmental politics have focused on regulating the output side of the economy.

7. A woman’s handbag is no place for a man to be looking inside.

8. Neither news nor language is transparent window on the world.

3.3. Decide upon the better topic sentence in each pair:

1. There are many things that make living in big cities unpleasant.

2. What makes living in big cities particularly unpleasant are traffic jams and air pollution.

1. Applying for a job is a complicated process.

2. When applying for a job you have to go through many stages and fill in a lot of forms.

1. The old quarters of Minsk attract visitors by the unique architecture.

2. The old quarters of Minsk are very attractive.

1. New computer technologies open wide possibilities for improving health services.

2. Computers are useful.

3.4. Rewrite the following topic sentences to make them more specific:

1. Vitamins are vital for our life.

2. There are many interesting sights in this city.

3. The Mercedes is an excellent automobile.

4. Swimming can be dangerous.

5. The home-repair department in Sears is convenient.

6. Kirish World is a wonderful Turkish resort.

7. The Amazon Basin is not a good place for Europeans to live.

8. Journalism is a hard job.

9. Spring is an inspiring season.

3.5. Read the following paragraphs and write out the topic sentences for them:

1. The International Committee of the Red Cross has been told that its famous symbol, painted on field hospitals and ambulances since the Austro-Prussian war in 1866, is in need of urgent updating.

2. A good place to start in exploring a context is to ask yourself what you don’t understand about a text you are reading, and then set yourself the task of investigating different contexts to see if they explain what has been puzzling you. You won’t necessarily find a straightforward explanation, but you might start to see why a text has been written in a certain way.

3. It was to his shop I went one Friday afternoon to have my hair cut. My Dad had been nagging me that much about it, until he got fed up and said he wouldn’t give me my Friday’s sixpence until it had been cut. I hated the idea of having a haircut because, apart from the ordeal of plucking and itching and keeping still, there was always something warm about having long thick hair covering your neck and hanging like a fringe over your jersey collar.

4. Everyone knows that taxation is necessary in a modern state: without it, it would not be possible to pay the soldiers and policeman who protect us: nor the workers in government offices who look after our health, our food, our water, and all the other things that we cannot do for ourselves, nor also the ministers and members of parliament who govern the country for us. By means of taxation we pay for things that we need as much as we need somewhere to live and something to eat.

5. In the Russian language the word ‘woman writer’ has a female gender, and using this word is problematical for many because men begin to smile and speak about ‘some stupid woman things’. As a result, most serious poets and prose writers prefer to use the word for ‘man writer’ to defend the quality of their creative activity. Women’s creative activity is regarded by men as something inherently non-serious, non-talented, and second-rate… Most important literary critics…speak about very strong, popular books written by contemporary women as exceptions to the rule.

Paragraph Structure

To support, prove or develop a topic sentence, a paragraph should have several supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence to summarize the material in the paragraph, to offer a solution to the stated problem, etc.

3.6. Look at the following paragraphs and identify the topic sentence (TS) and the supporting sentences (SS) and the concluding sentences (CS):

1. In times gone by, lions lived in Europe, the Middle East, India and Africa. ( ) Humans killed hundreds of lions either out of fear or for sport. ( ) When areas were cleared to make towns and villages, lions and other animals were killed in large numbers. ( ) Now there are no lions left in the Middle East or Northern Africa. ( ) Lions can be found in Asia and the Eastern part of Central Africa. ( ) They are mostly found in zoos or national parks. ( )

2. In these modern times we live a fast-paced life. ( ) We speed on highways that never end, take jet planes to travel faster. ( ) Fast food restaurants save us time. ( ) Our machines are working faster than ever, and we can enjoy more leisure time. ( ) Then, in our leisure time, we grumble because things move too slowly. ( )

There should be no irrelevant information in a paragraph; if there is, then the paragraph is badly written, because the meaning link between the topic sentence and other sentences will be lost.

3.7. Look at the following paragraph. Is there any irrelevant information? Underline the irrelevant sentences, if any, in the paragraph.

Our dog Buster is a sprightly, mischievous Spitz. The first thing he did when he was brought home from the breeder’s farm was to chew up my rubber slipper. The breeder lives on a farm in the outskirts of the city. She was a teacher once, but now she has taken up breeding dogs. Next he ‘read’ my father’s newspaper thoroughly – a shredding machine couldn’t have done a better job. Then he chased our neighbor’s poor little kitten all around the garden, yapping furiously. He had a big grin on his face, but we were exhausted.

3.8. What is wrong with the following paragraph?

I love swimming in the sea at Kovalam. Kovalam is in Kerala, which is a state in South India. Kerala is the only state which has reached the target of 100% literacy.

Hint: What is the topic sentence?

3.9. Identify the irrelevant sentences in the following paragraphs:

A. The general population often resists innovations, whether practical or aesthetic. When the early experiments in the field of aviation began their work, there were many who said, ‘If God had wanted man to fly, He would have given him wings.’ The Wright brothers made the first powered flights in a heavier-than-air craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. ‘Even today there are many who strongly object to modern art and music as being nothing more than ‘splashes of paint and honking horns.’ The painter Picasso’s well-known masterpiece The Three Musicians is done primarily in blues and browns.

B. Editorials differ from other kinds of news stories. In most regular news stories, it is assumed that no personal opinions are being represented. Newspaper writers are supposed to present the facts of each story in a straightforward, unbiased fashion. ‘Statistics reveal that over 61 million newspapers are sold ever day in this country. The purpose of the editorial page, of course, is to allow the editors to give their personal opinions. Here is where they tell readers what they think about an issue – who is at fault, who has done a good job, or how a situation could be improved. It is no wonder, then, that Thomas Jefferson once remarked that he could more easily accept newspapers without government than government without newspapers.

The Concluding Sentence at the end of a paragraph usually uses one or more of the following techniques:

1. summarizes the material in the paragraph

2. offers a solution to the problem stated in the paragraph

3. predicts a situation that will result or occur from the statements made in the paragraph

4. states a conclusion to information given in the paragraph.

3.10. Read the paragraphs below to identify the concluding sentences and concluding techniques used:

The English Novel of the 20^th Century

As compared to the novel of the Victorian period, which had social themes, the novel of the twentieth century has more personal, individual themes. But at the same time as the novel examines the problems of the individual, it also becomes an examination of the whole world. England is no longer the main scene – many writers use the wider world, outside England, as their setting. Often England is seen in contrast with the other countries described. Writers also begin to use different points of view, rather than seeing the world through only one character’s eyes. The many points of view, the range of settings, and quick moves from scene to scene all become part of modern writing. So did a psychological approach. The stream of consciousness technique, named after the American psychologist William James, became an important part of novelists’ techniques in the early twentieth century. Thus, the English novel of the 20^th century has demonstrated new approaches in a number of aspects adding its share to the development of world literature.

3.11. Now you write a five-sentence paragraph on your own. You might begin it like this:

I like to spend my summer vacations in ……………………….

A good paragraph must have UNITY (that is to have only one idea), ORDER (the logical sequence of thought, coherence), and it should be fully DEVELOPED (an idea expressed in the topic sentence should not be abandoned half-way through).

3.12. There are two different ideas in the following paragraph, and therefore, there must be two paragraphs. Read the passage and use L to indicate where a new paragraph should begin. Also underline the topic sentence of each paragraph.

There was a time in history when this land we now call Britain was not an island. It was joined to the rest of Europe, and hills and forests once stood where the North Sea and the English Channel are today. Then, owing to some great earthquakes, much of the land sank, the sea rushed in and only high parts remained above the surface of the water. How do we know this? Fishermen trawling in the North Sea and the English Channel have found in their nets the bones of pre-historic animals that must have been roaming about on what was once dry land. Sabre-toothed tigers, mammoths and other creatures that have disappeared long ago could not have been paddling about in canoes, could they?

3.13. Put the following sentences in the correct order to make a coherent paragraph. Sentence (b) is the first sentence.

1. Others feared that, one day, he might accept the crown of Rome which had been offered him.

2. On March 15^th, in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was assassinated on the steps of the Capitol in Rome.

3. Some were jealous of his outstanding success as a general.

4. A number of reach and famous Roman senators had plotted his downfall.

5. So his ‘friends’, Brutus, Cassius and Casca with others thrust their daggers into the great leader.

6. Then they dipped their daggers in his blood and held them up for all to see.

3.14. What is wrong with the following paragraph?

There are three reasons why I am not admitting my child to that school. In the first place, the school is far away from where we live. Yes, the school does have a bus, but can you imagine a child of 5 having to spend nearly an hour to reach school? That’s the time it takes for the bus, with a lot of pick-up points on the way. I definitely will not send my child to that school.

3.14. Write a short paragraph according to the specifications given below:

TOPIC SENTENCE: there are both advantages and disadvantages of owing a digital TV.

SUPPORTING SENTENCES: two advantages and two disadvantages.

CONCLUDING SENTENCE: Explain why you do or do not like owing a digital TV.

Types of Paragraphs

Descriptive Paragraph

Description is the art of translating perception into words. When you write a descriptive paragraph, you try to reproduce in words what you see, hear or experience. The aim of a descriptive paragraph is to be as accurate and effective as possible.

3.15. Study the descriptive paragraph about a garden. Is it effective? In what way?

David Moss lived with his family in the last house in Jubilee Row. The house was like all the others, but their garden was something quite out of the ordinary; it ran straight back for the first twenty yards, like all other gardens; then, when the others stopped, this took a sudden turn to the right and, in another minute, it reached an unexpected destination. When the other gardens ended in a hedge, a fence or a stretch of wire-netting, the Moss’s garden was brought to a stop only by the softly flowing waters of the River Say.

3.16. Now write a one-paragraph description of a place you know or like very much.

Descriptions can be of events, processes, objects or people, too. However, while describing persons, we tend to choose details that we feel reflect the personality of the individual:

My grandmother had always been short and fat and slightly bent. Her face was a criss-cross of wrinkles running from everywhere to everywhere…her silver locks were scattered untidily over her pale, puckered face, and her lips constantly moved in audible prayer.

3.17. Write a paragraph describing a friend or relative.

3.18. How do you describe an apple? Write it.

3.19. Describe the process of making an international telephone call.

3.20. Write more samples of descriptive paragraphs: describe a person, a thing, a place, and a process.

Narrative paragraph

Narrative paragraphs describe what happened – chains of events, actions, etc.

Example:

Car Accident

It is this mad craze for speed that is responsible for many car accidents. Only last month, I witnessed what might have been a fatal accident on the Moscow highway. I was motoring down from Minsk, and I was near Logoisk, when I came upon the wreckage of two cars on the road. The smash had been caused by a car taking a sharp curve at 80 kmph and crashing into a maxi-taxi coming up. Happily, no one was killed, but many were badly injured, and the two cars were total write-offs. To drive fast down a twisting road is to court disaster.

Reflective paragraph

Reflective paragraphs deal with ideas and opinions. In other words, they are concerned with our brain, thinking and other cognitive aspects. Most reflective paragraphs try to justify or persuade.

3.21. Read the following reflective paragraph about Mercy. Which is the topic sentence?

To forgive an injury is often considered to be a sign of weakness; it is really a sign of strength. It is easy to allow oneself to be carried away by resentment and hate into an act of vengeance; but it takes a strong character to restrain these natural passions. The man who forgives an injury proves himself to be the superior of the man who has wronged him, and puts the wrong-doer to shame. Forgiveness may even turn a foe into a friend. So mercy is the noblest form of revenge.

Commentary: this paragraph is about what the writer thinks about mercy. The supporting sentences are used to strengthen the idea that mercy is not weakness. Notice how the writer has first presented the common view and then introduced his own view. Also notice how he achieves an impact by placing the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph.

Methods of Paragraph Development

The most common methods of paragraph development are enumeration, cause and effect, comparison and contrast.

Enumeration

In this type of paragraph development, a writer starts with a general class, then proceeds to break it down by listing some or all of its members or parts.

Example:

There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library. First, there are books on all subjects. These books are organized according to subject, title, and author in a central filed called the card catalogue. Books can generally be checked out of the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks. Second, there are reference works, which include encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, and so forth, and which generally must be used in the library itself. Third, there are periodicals – magazines, newspapers, pamphlets – which are filed alphabetically in racks, or which have been microfilmed to conserve space. Like reference works, periodicals usually can not be removed from the library.

3.22. What is the topic sentence here? Underline the key words in the topic sentence. What type of supportive information does the author use (examples, details, facts, statistics)? How many kinds or types of library materials are discussed?

When making a list, we often use numerals (for example, 1, 2, 3, and so forth) to indicate the various items in the list. In most formal writing, however, the items are usually indicated by what is called listing signals (First, …; Second, …; and Third, … .). there are two main groups of listing signals in English:

GROUP 1	GROUP 2
First,	The first
Second,	(or One)
(or Next,)	The second
Third,	(or Another)
(or Next,)	(or The next)
(or Then,)	The third
Last,	(or Still another)
(or Finally,)	(or The next)
	The last
	(or The final)

Note:

The words in Group 1 require a different sentence structure than the words in Group 2 ! let’s take a sentence from the paragraph on library materials to illustrate this difference:

Group 1: First, there are books.

Group 2: The first kind consists of books.

Note that a full sentence follows the listing signals from Group 1.

Notice that in Group 2, the listing signal and enumerator are the subject of the sentence. These differences, although simple, are very important!

3.23. Write listing signals for the following paragraph:

The science of proxemics has identified four main distances at which Americans interact. Each of these zones has a close and distant phase. _______ the intimate zone. The close phase of this zone – actual physical contact to about 6 inches – is used only with loved ones in such private activities as patting a child the head or kissing. The distant phase – 6 to 18 inches – is appropriate for close friend but not for casual acquaintances. ________ the personal zone. Its close phase is roughly 18 inches to 2.5 feet, the distance family members stand from each other. The distant phase, which extends to about 4 feet, is common in a conversation among friends. ________ the social zone, which is typical of business dealings. Colleagues at work use close social distance (4 to 7 feet). The distant phase (7 to 12 feet) is automatically adopted in more formal circumstances – for example, when newly introduced people are assessing each other, or when a low-level employee is called into the boss’s office. _________ the public zone, which is used on the most formal public occasions. The more important the speaker is, the further people stand from him or her. This zone can extend to 25 feet and beyond.

The above paragraph is structured so that all its parts are of equal importance.

Sometimes, however, it is necessary to indicate that one of the items in the list of enumeration is more important, more interesting, more influential, stronger, or bigger. There are two ways in which an item can be singled out in a written paragraph: ascending and descending order.

In descending order, the writer lists the most important point first, then goes on to speak of the other points. The descending order is indicated by means of a special group of listing signals:

GROUP 3(Descending order)
The	most essential most important primary largest chief (etc.)		kind reason (etc.)	is ________.

Asceding order is exactly the opposite of descending order. Here we list minor points first, saving the most important for the last. This keeps the reader interested, since the paragraph has a kind of dramatic structure to it.

GROUP 4 (Ascending order)
But the	most essential most important primary largest chief (etc.)		kind reason (etc.)	is_______.
The	most essential most important primary largest chief (etc.)		kind reason (etc.)	is______.
Finally – and most importantly – there is _______________________.

3.24. Analyze the following Enumerative Paragraphs. Read each of the following paragraphs carefully, and determine which order it illustrates. Then indicate all the enumerators and listing signals used to structure the paragraph.

Type of order: _________________________________

Enumerator(s): ______________________________________________

Listing signals::_______________________________________

Cause and Effect

A cause-effect development is the way of developing a paragraph where the topic sentence and the supporting sentences are in causal relationship. This means that your supporting sentences become a list of either effects (what a certain situation has led to or resulted in), or causes (reasons or explanations why something is the way it is, or why it happened the way it did).

3.25. Now look at each of these methods in the model paragraphs. Look for:

1. supportive material such as examples, details, facts and statistics,

2. listing signals,

3. ascending or descending order.

Model paragraph 1

Some scientists warn that the gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere, known as the greenhouse effect, will cause dramatic changes in the world as we know it. First of all, because of the increase in temperature of up to 10 degrees F by the end of the next century, which some believe has already began, there will be changes in existing pattern of agriculture. Such fertile areas as the U.S. Great Plains may become deserts, while the now arid lands in Saudi Arabia may become grain-producing farmland. Secondly, since rainfall patterns will change, water supplies in some areas will diminish. Experts predict, for instance, that the rice fields in southeast Asia will some day require irrigation to sustain crops. Changes in water levels will also be responsible for altered living patterns. Coastal areas, such as Florida and the Netherlands, will experience such a dramatic rise in water levels that they will fall below sea level and become uninhabitable. In other areas, like the Great Lakes, water levels will fall; consequently, they will no longer be able to support industry with energy supplies and a ready means of transportation. Since most experts on the greenhouse effect are convinced that it is irreversible, they advise us to plan now for how best to cope with the changing world.

Model paragraph 2

To understand why baroque art put great emphasis on virtuosity it is helpful to bear in mind the chief assumptions and preoccupations shared by most baroque artists. First, whatever the medium in which they worked, baroque artists were united in their commitment to the expression of intense emotions. In the Renaissance artists had generally tried to achieve calm balance and order they thought of as typically classical. By contrast, in the Baroque period artists were attracted by the extremes of feeling. Sometimes these strong emotions were personal. Painters and poets alike tried to look into their own souls and reveal by colour or word the depths of psychic and spiritual experience. However, more often artists tried to convey intense religious emotions. The concern with emotions produced in its turn an interest in what came to be called psychology. Baroque artists tried to explain how and why their subjects felt as strongly as they did by presenting their emotional states as widely and analytically as possible. This is particularly evident in seventeenth century opera and drama, where music in the one case and words in the other used to depict the precise state of mind of the characters. As a result, Baroque artists’ commitment to strong emotional statements and to psychological exploration required the invention of new and daring techniques, thus inaugurating the tradition of the virtuoso artist which reached a climax in the nineteenth century.

Comparison and Contrast

The topic sentence can be supported by arranging the supporting sentences according to either similarities or differences between two things, or between two aspects of one thing.

COMPARISON: POINTING OUT LIKENESSES

CONTRAST: POINTING OUT DIFFERENCES

Model paragraph

Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S. presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F.Kennedy? a minor point is that the names Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven letters. Both men had their elections legally challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humour, as well as for their interest in civil rights. Lincoln became president in 1860; Kennedy, in 1960. Lincoln's’ secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the presence of their wives. Both assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald were murdered before they could be brought to trial. Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat named Johnson, so was Kennedy. Andrew Johnson (Lincoln’s successor) was born in 1808; Lyndon Johnson (Kennedy’s successor) was born in 1908.