3. The Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council, under the overall authority of the General Assembly, coordinates the economic and social work of the United Nations and the UN family of organizations. As the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and for formulating policy recommendations, the Council plays a key role in fostering international cooperation for development. It also consults with non-governmental organizations (NGOs), thereby maintaining a vital link between the United Nations and civil society.

The Council has 54 members, elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. It meets throughout the year and holds a major session in July, during which a special meeting of Ministers discusses major economic, social and humanitarian issues.

The Council's subsidiary bodies meet regularly and report back to it. The Commission on Human Rights, for example, monitors the observance of human rights throughout the world. Other bodies focus on such issues as social development, the status of women, crime prevention, narcotic drugs and environmental protection. Five regional commissions promote economic development and cooperation in their respective regions.

4. Disarmament

Halting the spread of arms and reducing and eventually eliminating all weapons of mass destruction are major goals of the United Nations. The UN has been an ongoing forum for disarmament negotiations, making recommendations and initiating studies. It supports multilateral negotiations in the Conference on Disarmament and in other international bodies. These negotiations have produced such agreements as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996) and the treaties establishing nuclear-free zones.

Other treaties prohibit the development, production and stockpiling of chemical weapons (1992) and bacteriological weapons (1972), ban nuclear weapons from the seabed and ocean floor (1971) and outer space (1967); and ban or restrict other types of weapons. In 1997, more than 100 nations signed the Ottawa Convention outlawing landmines. The UN encourages all nations to adhere to this and other treaties banning destructive weapons of war. The UN is also supporting efforts to control small arms and light weapons. As decided by the General Assembly, an international conference in 2001 will focus on the illicit trade in small arms.

The Vienna-based International Atomic Energy Agency, through a system of safeguards agreements, ensures that nuclear materials and equipment intended for peaceful uses are not diverted to military purposes. And in The Hague, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons collects information on chemical facilities worldwide and conducts routine inspections to ensure adherence to the chemical weapons convention.

5. Peacemaking

UN peacemaking brings hostile parties to agreement through diplomatic means. The Security Council, in efforts to maintain international peace and security, may recommend ways to avoid conflict or restore or secure peace - through negotiation, for example, or recourse to the International Court of Justice.

The Secretary-General plays an important role in peacemaking. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which appears to threaten international peace and security; may use "good offices" to carry out mediation; or exercise "quiet diplomacy" behind the scenes, either personally or through special envoys. The Secretary-General also undertakes "preventive diplomacy" aimed at resolving disputes before they escalate. The Secretary-General may also send a fact-finding mission, support regional peacemaking efforts or set up a local UN political office to help build trust between the parties in conflict.

6. Reforming the Security Council

Four countries started joint attack on the UN with an eye to get permanent membership in the Security Council. Orally the majority of the international community have nothing against it. But still there will be no Security Council reform.

Brazil, Germany, India and Japan have united in struggle for getting permanent status in the UN Security Council. All of them have demanded it before, but every time they were said no. This was likely to happen because they acted separately. But now "the group of four" hopes that everything will change. The representatives of these four countries met in New York and issued a joined statement. "UN Security Council should reflect the real state of affairs of the international community in the 21^st century" – Japanese and Indian Prime ministers Junichiro Koizumi and Manmohan Singh, German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva repute. Brazil, Germany, India and Japan pledged themselves to try all ways to support each other' efforts in achieving the stated aim. Besides they claimed the status of permanent membership to be given to one of African countries. Thought they didn't point out a country, simply noting that the Security Council should be "representative, legitimate and efficient". As additional arguments the leaders reminded everybody that India is the most populous country of the world, Japan is the second (after the USA) sponsor of the UN, and Brazil can well enough represent the whole Latin America in the Security Council. Finally Germany's active participation in UN projects, including Afghanistan wasn't forgotten.

One should say that many support Security Council enlargement. For instance this idea has been long popularized by Secretary-General Kofi Annan, who proposes to include developing countries in the Security Council. Theoretically joint efforts of the four countries have chances to succeed. But according to many experts, they are unlikely to win the day. "Of course, it is getting more and more difficult for the ongoing members of the Security Council who no doubt would like to keep the present state of affairs to do it" – one of the UN's insiders say. – The Americans, the British, the French and the Russians can no more recall the Security Council" history of creation and say that Germany and Japan have no right to claim permanent membership, just due to the fact they have once lost the war. Most likely they will have to acknowledge that the Japanese and the Germans have long deserved Security Council membership, and India's absence there is quite an anachronism." But China can well venture to do things, the western powers and Russia can't due to various reasons. China has already displayed it, once again being in opposition to giving Japan permanent membership.

"The Security Council is not a board of directors; its membership is not to be determined against financial contribution of some countries – representative of China's Ministry for Foreign Affairs asserted. He also added that the emphasis was to the placed on developing countries representation. He said nothing of WWII result, but there was no need in that. Anyway, it is clear that China will not at any price let Japan's permanent membership in the Security Council. Thus, as it is judged by many, for the new initiative to fail, four in five permanent members should do nothing at all. It is enough not to hamper China.

CONTENTS

Part I 1

Introduction 1

1. Pre-reading task. Answer the following questions: 1

1. What do you know about the United Nations and its activities? 1

2. Can you quote any recent developments associated with the UN? 1

3. What do you know about Russia's participation in the UN's work? 1

4. How can you get information about the UN? 1

1

2. Read the following text 1

What is the United Nations? 1

1. What can be said about the UN in general? 3

2. What do the abbreviations mentioned in the text stand for? 3

4. Comment on the heading of the article. How would you answer this question? 3

5. What is the first thing that occurs to you when you hear about the UN? 3

6. Do you agree that "the UN is not always what it seems to be"? Why? 3

Chapter 1 4

Preamble to the UN Charter 4

Chapter 2 8

Origin and founding documents 8

4. Suggested activities for students and topics for discussion: 11

1. Find the Universal Declarations of Human rights. Study it and prepare a short summary of its main provisions. 11

2. Do you think that this Declaration is unconditionally observed by all the UN member-states? Research the problem and find some examples to prove your point of view. 11

3. Can be it sad that the Declaration is an ideal document? Does it work successfully in practice? 11

4. Study the Charter and the Declaration of Human rights. Do the countries observe their provisions? Why do violations of these documents occur? Give any examples that would evidence such violations if any. 11

5. Analyze the founding documents of the UN. Do they contribute to carrying out the UN purposes? Nowadays there are persistent calls for reforming the UN. Do you think that the founding documents also need rethinking and revising? 11

6. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is often called "Magna Carta" for all humanity. Study these two documents and try to say whether they have something in common? 11

7. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted in 1948. Is it still relevant, in respect to the challenges the contemporary world is facing? 11

Chapter 3 12

Purposes and Principles 12

Chapter 4 16

Membership 16

Chapter 5 18

The Main Organs 18

Chapter 6 25

Security Council 25

Secretariat 26

Part II 32

Chapter 1 32

1. Read the following text 32

The Millennium Summit: Charting а new vision for the new era 32

1. When and where did the Millennium Summit take place? 34

2. Who attended the meeting? How was it dubbed? 34

3. What values were identified during the Summit? 34

4. What problems are awaiting their settlement? 34

Chapter 2 37

Climate change and biosafety 37

Concerns for the natural environment have moved up on everyone's agenda over the past three decades, as rapid population increases and economic development have strained the world's forests, farmlands, atmosphere, rivers and oceans. The UN has taken the lead through its efforts to safeguard our natural heritage. This is an area where the UN's global reach and ability to act as an honest broker has produces impressive results. 37

The Earth Summit and the Kyoto Protocol are two UN-sponsored events that have helped transform how we think about our responsibility to the natural environment. 37

1. злоупотреблять использованием чего-либо (лесов, пахотных земель, атмосферы и т.д.) 40

2. Взять на себя инициативу, выступить инициатором 40

Chapter 3 44

Peacekeeping 44

Chapter 4 53

Disarmament 53

Chapter 5 61

Call for reform. Renewing the United Nations 61

Реформирование ООН 66

6. Go to the modelun@unausa.org to set up a Model UN Meeting. It is a simulation of the UN system. In this simulation students assume the roles of diplomats. They represent various countries and participate in debates about current issued of the UN agenda. It will help you better understand the UN and appreciate the complexities and accomplishments of the international cooperation. 68

Part III 69

Обзорные переводы 69

1. Права человека 69

2. Международное право 70

3. Экономический и социальный совет 71

4. Разоружение 72

5. Миротворчество 73

6. Реформа Совета Безопасности ООН 74

Part IV 76

Further Reading And Speaking 76

The Politics of UN Membership 76

The United Nations 77

The UN Specialised Agencies 88

Courage to fulfil our responsibilities 90

(by Secretary General Kofi Annan, the Economist December 4^th, 2004) 90

At the beginning of the 21^st century, we face a world of extraordinary interconnectedness. We are all vulnerable to new security threats, and to old threats that are evolving in complex and unpredictable ways. Either we allow this array of threats, and our responses to them, to divide us, or we come together to take effective action to meet all of them on the basis of a shared commitment to collective security. 90

Late last year, convinced that the time had come for a fundamental review of our collective security system, I established a High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change. I asked its 16 members – eminent people, representing many nations and points of view – to analyze the threats to peace and security our world faces; to evaluate how well our existing policies and institutions are meeting them; and to recommend changes to those policies and institutions, so as to ensure an effective collective response to those threats. 90

Their report, "A More Secure World: Our Shared Responsibility" which I received this week follows a year of consultations around the world. It makes 101 far-sighted but realistic recommendations. If acted on, they would address the security concerns of all states, ensure that the UN works better, strengthen the international rule of law and make all people safer. 90

A world of interconnected threats 90

We must first agree on the threats we face. Today, any event or process that leads to deaths on a large scale or the lessening of life chances, and which undermines states as the basic unit of the international system, should be viewed as a threat to internationals peace and security. 90

According to the panel, six clusters of threats fall under that rubric: 90

economic and social threats, including poverty and deadly infectious disease; 90

inter-state conflict and rivalry; 90

internal violence, including civil war; 90

state collapse and genocide; 90

nuclear, radiological, chemical and biochemical weapons; 90

terrorism; 90

transnational organized crime; 91

Today, these threats are interconnected to an unprecedented degree, and no state acting alone can defeat them. The panel report spells out the dangers with horrifying clarity. With the amount of highly enriched uranium that could fit into six milk cartoons, a terrorist could improvise a nuclear devise to level a medium-size city. A nuclear attack on such a city in the United States or Europe would have staggering costs for the world economy. According to the World Bank, the attacks of September 11^th, 2001 cost more than $80 billion dollars and pushed 11m people in developing countries into poverty. The economic fallout from a nuclear terrorist attack would dwarf these numbers. Given the relationship between poverty and infant mortality, we could count the cost of a nuclear terrorist attack in a rich country in two terrible death tolls: in the attacked city and in poor nations all over the world. 91

Likewise the security of developed countries is only as strong as the ability of poor states to respond to and contain a new deadly infectious disease. As the panel notes, the incubation period for most infectious diseases is longer than most international air flights. As a result, any one of the 700m people who travel on airlines in a year could unwittingly carry a lethal virus to an unsuspecting country. The 1918 influenza epidemic killed twice as many people in one year as HIV/AIDS has killed in the past 28 years. Today, a similar virus could kill tens of millions in a fraction of the time. 91

So, in today's world any threat to one is truly a threat to all. This principle, once applied only to military attacks by one state against another, should be extended to all categories of threats we face. And since there are real limits on self-protection, all states share an interest in a collective-security system that commits all of them to act co-operatively against these dangers. 91

Getting serious about prevention 91

Given the gravity and interconnectedness of today's threats, our world needs to be far more committed to prevention. Prevention, if properly resourced and broadly supported, can be highly effective. The panel report reminds us that in 1963, many thought that 25 – 50 states would possess nuclear weapons by this year; the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has helped prevent this. The World Health Organization, which led efforts to eradicate smallpox and roll back the threat of polio, recently helped halt the spread of SARS and save the lives of tens of thousands of people. 91

The best agents of prevention are capable states exercising their sovereignty responsibly, dealing with internal dangers before they threaten others, and acting collectively with other states to meet threats on a global scale. 92

And our best preventive strategy is to support development. Committing resources to achieve the Millennium development Goals agreed in 2000 is the best security investment states can make. It will save lives in poor countries, reduce violent conflicts and the appeal of radicalism, and holster the ability of states to deal with threats before they can cause real harm. 92

The dangers of inadequate preventive action are powerfully illustrated by the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In the face of a lamentably slow and ineffective global response, the disease has killed 20m people in as many years, and it continues to spread. Tragically, the worst is yet to come. Its ultimate cost will be measured not just in lives, but in shattered societies. Despite greater international resolve in recent years, we are still not taking all the steps needed to bring the disease under control. 92

We also need a major initiative to build public-health capacities in the developing world. If diseases can be treated and, better still, prevented at local level, not only the poorer countries will benefit. The whole world will acquire better defenses against bio-terrorism and large-scale natural epidemics. And the Security Council should work closely with the World Health Organization to strengthen biological security through prompt, effective responses to such outbreaks. 92

Equally critical is greater collective action on environmental degradation – from a long-term strategy to reduce global warming, going beyond the periods covered by the Kyoto Protocol, to better management of natural resources in countries that are at risk. 92

Countering terrorism 92

Prevention is also a vital part of any effective strategy to protect people against terrorism. Terrorism is not new. What is new is the range, scale and intensity if the threat. Today, one terror network, Al-Qaeda, has the capacity to kill around the world, and has struck in more than ten UN member-states in the past few years. In addition, the prospect that terrorism could acquire instruments of massive destruction creates unprecedented dangers. 92

The UN must make better use of its assets in the fight against terrorism. It should articulate an effective and principled counter-terrorism strategy that is respectful of the rule of law and universal human rights. But first – a significant problem – terrorism must be defined. One of panel's signal achievements is to offer such a definition, agreed to by all the panelists. It would define terrorism as any action intended to kill or seriously harm civilians or non-combatants, with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling action by a government or international organization. States should use this definition to build consensus and strengthen the UN's response to this deadly scourge. 93

The report also makes urgent recommendations on non-proliferation, disarmament and curbing the supply of dangerous materials to reduce the risk of nuclear, chemical or biological attacks by states or terrorist groups. States must be encouraged to give up the development of domestic uranium enrichment, and be urged to take part in a voluntary time-limited moratorium on the construction of reprocessing plants. The International Atomic Energy Agency's ability to monitor compliance with the Non-Proliferation Treaty should be strengthened, using the standards in the treaty's additional protocol for safeguards inspections. 93

Civil and interstate wars 93

Since the end of the cold war, the UN has become far more engaged in preventing and ending civil wars, and it has continued its long-standing role of working to stop wars between states. As the panel points out, more civil wars have been brought to an end through negotiation since 1990 than in the 200 years before that. Through successes and failures, we have developed expertise and learned hard lessons. 93

As the demand for UN blue helmets continues to grow, we need to boost the supply of peacekeepers to avoid repeating some of the worst failures of the 1990s. Wealthy states should hasten their efforts to transform existing forces into contingents suitable for peace operations, and put them at the disposal of the UN. We must also invest in mediation and support the implementation of peace agreements. The report stresses the importance of demobilizing combatants and reintegrating them into civil life. If this is not done, civil wars cannot be successfully brought to an end, and other critical goals – democracy, justice and development – will remain unmet. 93

Time and again, the international community has lost focus once the high point of a crisis has passes or peacekeepers have left a country. I welcome the panel's proposal to help deal with this problem: the creation by the Security Council of a Peacekeeping Commission, which would give the organization a strategic focus for its work in countries under stress or emerging from conflict. 94

The use of force 94

Prevention or peaceful dispute-resolution will sometimes fail. When it does, we must be able to rely on the use of force. No matter what the cause, the report proposes five basic guidelines that all states and the Security Council should bear in mind in deciding whether to do so: 94

Seriousness of threat: Is the threat serious enough to justify prima facie the use of force? 94

Proper purpose: is the primary purpose of the proposed use of force to halt or avert the threat in question? 94

Last resort: Has every non-military option been explored and exhausted? 94

Proportional means: Is the force proposed the minimum necessary to meet the threat? 94

Balance of consequences: Is it clear that the consequences of action will not be worse than the consequences of inaction? 94

The report sees no need to amend Article 51 of the UN Charter, which preserves the right of all states to act in self-defence against armed attack, including the right to take pre-emptive action against an imminent threat. 94

However, in the new security environment in which we live, states may also fear threats that are neither imminent not proximate, but which could culminate in horrific violence if left to fester. The Security Council is already fully empowered by the Charter to deal with these threats. It must be prepared to do so, taking decisive action earlier than in the past, when asked to act by states that have based their claims on reliable evidence. 94

The question of action to protect civilians inside states has long been fraught with controversy. Yet it is being recognized more and more widely that the question is better framed not as one of a right to intervene, but of our responsibility to protect – a responsibility borne, first and foremost, by states. The panel members, whose background and experience vary widely, have agreed that the principle of non-intervention in internal affairs cannot be used to protect those who commit genocide, large-scale ethnic cleansing, or other comparable atrocities. I hope UN members will share that view – and that the Security Council will act on it. 94

A new United Nations 95

What does the panel's report mean for the UN? The organization is now nearly 60 years old. It was born in a very different time and designed for a very different world. It has an under-appreciated record of adapting to new dangers – take, for instance, its peacekeeping efforts in civil wars around the world, and its response to the attacks of September 2001. But it clearly needs far-reaching reform if it is to prevent and respond to all the threats that we face today. 95

Some propose that a collective response through the UN is too difficult or not necessary. But action taken to meet threats always has an impact beyond the immediate context, and all states benefit from a shared global framework. That does not mean that the UN needs to do everything. Indeed, as a matter of good policy and sheer practicality, the UN must learn to share burdens, welcoming help form others and working hand in hand with them. I am pleased that it is already doing so – and that the panel's report makes sensible recommendations to strengthen the UN's partnership with regional organizations and individual member-states. 95

Inevitably, great attention will fall on the question of Security Council reform. What are the objectives of such reform? They surely must be to make the council more effective and authoritative. The idea of permanent membership was devised to ensure the active engagement of the big powers of 60 years ago in the maintenance of international peace and security. Whether we need new permanent members is a matter of controversy and debate. 95

The report offers two formulae for consideration by member states, both of which would expand membership to 24, and would have the same goals: to bring into the council's deliberations those who contribute most to the organizations financially, military and diplomatically; to ensure that the council broadly represents the membership of the UN as a whole; and not to expand the veto, which would render decision-making more difficult. The panel's proposals offer a chance for a breakthrough on this vital issue in the year ahead. If these recommendations are acted upon, the Security Council would be more representative of our world, and better equipped to take decisive action. 95

We also need a strengthened UN Secretariat, one that can support the new Peacebuilding Commission and implement more effectively the decisions of the Security Council and other inter-governmental bodies on everything from peacekeeping operations to mediating civil wars. The report envisages a secretariat that is come concerted it is action, and in which the Secretary-General has more responsibility of management and greater accountability. 96

An equally important proposal is to overhaul the Economic and Social Council, to strengthen its role in social development and in improving knowledge about the economic and social dimensions of security threats. The report also recommends changes to make the Human Rights Commission a better defender of the human rights of people everywhere. 96

Time to decide 96

In his last annual address to Congress in January 1945, Franklin Roosevelt, then America's president, alluded to his plans to create a new collective security institution, the United Nations, had gave warning that: "In our disillusionment after the last war, we gave up the hope of achieving a better peace because we had not the courage to fulfil our responsibilities in an admittedly imperfect world." 96

Almost exactly 60 years later, we once again find ourselves mired in disillusionment, in an all too imperfect world. It is easy to stand at the sidelines and criticize. And we could talk endlessly about UN reform. But our world no longer has that luxury, the time has come to adapt our collective security system, so that it works efficiently, effectively and equitably. 96

Next year, UN member-states will be reviewing progress in implementing the Millennium Declaration adopted in 2000, culminating in a summit of world leaders in New York in September. This will be an appropriate moment for them to act on some of the most important recommendations in the panel's report, which require decisions at the highest levels of government. 96

I fervently hope that world leaders will rise to this challenge. In the past three years we have all lived through a period of deep division and somber reflection. We must make 2005 a year of bold decision. As the panel simply puts it: "We all share responsibility for each other's security". Let us summon the courage to fulfil that responsibility. 97

Suggested Topics For Discussion 98

Check yourself 99

KEYS 106

2. Who attended the summit? How was it dubbed? 116

3. What values were identified during the Summit? 116

4. What problems are awaiting their settlement? 116

5. What timetable was set for fighting poverty? 116

REFORMING THE UNITED NATIONS 125

1 The Trusteeship Council was established to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories and ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government or independence. By 1994 all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence. With the independence of Palau (the last remaining UN's trust Territory) which became the 185^th Member State of the UN, the council formally suspended operations on 1 November, 1994. Now it consists only of the five permanent members of the Security Council.

2 There are two entities with the same acronym: the World Trade Organization and the World Tourism Organization

3 good offices: when a third party offers a location for discussions among disputants but does not participate in the actual negotiations

4 mediation: when a third party proposes a nonbinding solution to a controversy between two other states

5 Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations (FAO)

6 The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) which urged industrialized countries to reduce their emission of greenhouse gases

7 they are: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride

8 an emissions trading regime; joint implementation; a clean development mechanism

9 Observer missions usually consist of unarmed military and civilian personnel who moni­tor the implementation of ceasefire agreements.

10 Peacekeeping forces are composed of lightly armed forces, and include fully equipped infantry contingents.

11 Peacemaking involves the use of diplomacy to persuade belligerents to stop fighting and negotiate an end to their dispute

12 Peace-building involves helping nations to promote peace before, during or after a conflict. Broadly defined it employs a wide range of political, humanitarian and human rights activities and programs.

13 United Nations Protection Forces (UNPROFOR)

14 United Nations Protected Areas (UNPAs)

15 small arms are weapons designed for personal use (e.g. revolvers and self-loading pistols, rifles, sub-machine guns, assault rifles

16 light weapons are designed for use by several persons serving as а crew (e.g. portable anti-air­craft and anti-tank guns, and portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile systems)

17 The doctrine adhering to the principles that a nuclear-weapon state would not use its strategic weapons in the event of an attack on it with conventional weapons by another state

18 the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization

19 As to the year 2001

20 One of the first substantive efforts by the UN to address the criticism came in 1994 with the establishment of the Office of Internal Oversight Services, charged with making the bureaucracy more effective and efficient.

21 Kofi Annan took office in 1994

22 When Kofi Annan took office, he launched what he called his "quiet revolution", to streamline the organization and make it both more efficient and more effective without rising costs. The quiet revolution managed to stop the Secretariat's budget creep for a few years, beginning in 1998 and even reduced a little

23 Non-Proliferation Treaty

24 the Convention оn Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxic Weapons

25 the Seabed Treaty

26 the Outer Space Treaty

27 the Mine-ban Convention

28 Junichiro Koizumi

29 Manmohan Singh

30 Joschka Fischer

31 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva

32 collective security a principle endorsed by a group of states who agree that they will jointly punish states that breach international peace

33 consensus decision making voting by voice without a record of individual members’ formal positions, in order to reach agreement without generating criticism from opponents within the members’ domestic system.

34 failed states countries whose governments have so mismanaged policy that they have lost the loyalty of their citizens whose revolts threaten to disintegrate the state.

35 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome