1. silicon – кремний, кремниевый

2. compute v – вычислять

3. manufacturer – производитель

4. cram v – впихивать, втискивать

5. device – устройство

6. in accordance with – в соответствии с

7. double v – удваиваться

8. name after v – называть в честь

9. founder – основатель

10. predict v – предсказывать

11. complexity – сложность

12. limitation – ограничение

13. current – современный

14. pack v – упаковывать

15. chip – схема

16. DUVL (deep ultra-violet lithography) – литография дальнего ультрафиолета

17. lithography – надпись на камне, гравировка

18. lens – линза

19. carve v – вырезать

20. circuit pattern – рисунок схемы

21. wafer - разг. вафля, тонкая круглая пластина особо чистого монокристалла кремния, обычно диаметром 200 или 300 мм, из которой изготавливаются микросхемы. На пластине в ходе технологического процесса обработки формируется матрица ячеек, содержащих одинаковые электронные схемы. Затем пластина разрезается по границам ячеек на кристаллы, или чипы. Под микроскопом к ним припаиваются выводы и каждый кристалл помещается в защитный корпус

22. reach limit v –достичь предела

23. chipmaker – производитель чипов

24. powerful – мощный

25. EUVL (extreme-ultraviolet lithography) – литография вакуумного ультрафиолета

26. extend life v – продлить жизнь

27. at least – по крайней мере

28. decade – десятилетие

29. wavelength – длина волны

30. focus accurately v - точно фокусироваться

31. Mirror - зеркало

Silicon microprocessors have been the heart of the computing world for more than 40 years. In that time, microprocessor manufacturers have crammed more and more electronic devices onto microprocessors. In accordance with Moore's Law, the number of electronic devices put on a microprocessor has doubled every 18 months. Moore's Law is named after Intel founder Gordon Moore, who predicted in 1965 that microprocessors would double in complexity every two years. Many have predicted that Moore's Law will soon reach its end because of the physical limitations of silicon microprocessors.

The current process used to pack more and more transistors onto a chip is called deep-ultraviolet lithography (DUVL), which is a photography-like technique that focuses light through lenses to carve circuit patterns on silicon wafers. DUVL will begin to reach its limit around 2005. At that time, chipmakers will have to look to other technologies to cram more transistors onto silicon to create more powerful chips. Many are already looking at extreme-ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) as a way to extend the life of silicon at least until the end of the decade. EUVL uses mirrors instead of lenses to focus the light, which allows light with shorter wavelengths to accurately focus on the silicon wafer.

Ex. 2. Put questions, to which the phrases given below provide the answers

1. ____________________________________________________

(40 years)

2. ______________________________________________________________

(every 18 months)

3. _____________________________________________________________

(after Intel founder Gordon Moore)

4. ______________________________________________________________

(microprocessors would double in complexity every two years)

5. ______________________________________________________________

(because of the physical limitations of silicon microprocessors)

6. ______________________________________________________________

(a photography-like technique that focuses light through lenses to carve circuit patterns on silicon wafers)

7. ______________________________________________________________

(will have to look to other technologies)

8. _______________________________________________________________

(as a way to extend the life of silicon)

9. _____________________________________________________________

(mirrors)

10. _____________________________________________________________

(to accurately focus on the silicon wafer)

Ex. 3 Translate from Russian into English

1. Производители микропроцессоров втискивают в них все больше и больше электронных устройств.

2. Количество электронных устройств удваивается каждые 18 месяцев.

3. Многие предсказывали, что закон Мура скоро прекратит действовать.

4. Производителям чипов придется искать новые технологии.

5. Литография вакуумного ультрафиолета использует зеркала вместо линз.

11 The future of PC: DNA and Quantum (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) computers - компьютеры на базе молекул ДНК (дезоксирибонуклеиновой кислоты)

2. emerge v – вновь появляться

3. pick up v – подхватывать движение, разгоняться

4. leave off v – останавливаться

5. cellular organism – клеточный организм

6. supply – источник

7. biochip [`baNBtGNp] – биокристалл

8. storage capacity - емкость запоминающего устройства, объем памяти

9. pound [paLnd] – фунт, современная мера веса, используемая в англоговорящих странах ( = 453,6 г)

10. teardrop-sized computer – компьютер размером со слезинку

11. logic gate - логический вентиль, электронный переключатель, дающий на выходе результат какой-либо булевой операции (чаще всего AND, OR, NOT, XOR ) над входными сигналами. Объединение нескольких вентилей позволяет создавать схемы, выполняющие сложные логические функции, управляющие потоком электрических сигналов почти так же, как металлические вентили управляют потоком воды. Часто используется как логический эквивалент термина транзистор

12. fit into area v – вместиться в пространство

13. inch - дюйм ( = 2,5 см )

14. terabyte (TB, TByte) – терабайт (Тбайт), единица измерения ёмкости памяти. Один терабайт равен 2⁴⁰ байт, или 1024 Гбайт

15. perform calculations – выполнять вычисления

16. simultaneously - одновременно

17. linearly – линейно

18. exist v – существовать

19. quantum computer - квантовый компьютер, новый тип компьютера, использующий для вычислений возможность нахождения групп атомов в разных состояниях. Теоретически такие системы позволяют эффективно выполнять параллельные вычисления. Очень чувствительны к шумам. Автор идеи - американский физик Ричард Фейнман (Richard Feynman)

20. qubit (quantum bit) - квантовый бит (разряд), отличается от обычного разряда памяти тем, что может одновременно находиться в двух состояниях, т.е. хранить 0 и 1 одновременно

21. superposition - наложение, совмещение

22. multiple - многочисленный

23. run at (speed) v – работать на скорости…

24. tera- - тера- ( приставка, обозначающая один триллион, или 2 в степени 40 )

25. ops (operations per second) - операций в секунду (скорость)

Beyond EUVL, researchers have been looking at alternatives to the traditional microprocessor design. Two of the more interesting emerging technologies are DNA computers and quantum computers.

DNA computers have the potential to take computing to new levels, picking up where Moore's Law leaves off. There are several advantages to using DNA instead of silicon:

• As long as there are cellular organisms, there will be a supply of DNA.

• The large supply of DNA makes it a cheap resource.

• Unlike traditional microprocessors, which are made using toxic materials, DNA biochips can be made cleanly.

• DNA computers are many times smaller than today's computers.

DNA's key advantage is that it will make computers smaller, while at the same time increasing storage capacity, than any computer that has come before. One pound of DNA has the capacity to store more information than all the electronic computers ever built. The computing power of a teardrop-sized DNA computer, using the DNA logic gates, will be more powerful than the world's most powerful supercomputer. More than 10-trillion DNA molecules can fit into an area no larger than 1 cubic centimeter (.06 inch³). With this small amount of DNA, a computer would be able to hold 10 terabytes (TB) of data and perform 10-trillion calculations at a time. By adding more DNA, more calculations could be performed.

Unlike conventional computers, DNA computers could perform calculations simultaneously. Conventional computers operate linearly, taking on tasks one at a time. It is parallel computing that will allow DNA to solve complex mathematical problems in hours -- problems that might take electrical computers hundreds of years to complete.

Today's computers work by manipulating bits that exist in one of two states: 0 or 1.

Quantum computers aren't limited to two states; they encode information as quantum bits, or qubits. A qubit can be a 1 or a 0, or it can exist in a superposition that is simultaneously 1 and 0 or somewhere in between. Qubits represent atoms that are working together to serve as computer memory and a microprocessor. Because a quantum computer can contain these multiple states simultaneously, it has the potential to be millions of times more powerful than today's most powerful supercomputers. A 30-qubit quantum computer would equal the processing power of a conventional computer capable of running at 10 teraops, or trillions of operations per second. Today's fastest supercomputers have achieved speeds of about 2 teraops.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. Traditional microprocessor design has no alternatives. T/F

2. DNA and quantum computers are the only advanced technologies now. T/F

3. DNA computers are environment-friendly. T/F

4. DNA computers are only a little smaller than modern computers. T/F

5. The term “logic gate” means technically very much the same as “a transistor”. T/F

6. The number of calculations doesn’t depend on the number of DNA molecules in a DNA computer. T/F

7. DNA computer can perform one task at a time. T/F

8. Qubits encode information in a system different from binary. T/F

9. Quantum computers process tasks linearly. T/F

10. Today’s fastest computers are not capable of running at a speed of 102⁴⁰ ops. T/S

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English

1. До тех пор, пока существуют клеточные организмы, будет и источник ДНК.

2. Основное достоинство ДНК в том, что она делает компьютер меньше.

3. ДНК компьютеры используют органические логические вентили.

4. ДНК компьютеры могут выполнять много операций одновременно.

5. Квантовые биты представляют взаимодействующие атомы, служащие одновременно и как память компьютера и как его микропроцессор.

12 What BIOS Does (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. Flash memory – память, сохраняющая свое содержимое без питания и регенерации

2. BIOS (basic input/output system) - базовая система ввода/вывода, БИОС

3. commonly – обычно

4. provide v – предоставлять

5. POST (Power-On Self Test) - самотестирование при включении питания и рестарте

6. make sure v - убедиться

7. SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) – интерфейс малых вычислительных систем, интерфейс "скази", тип параллельного интерфейса "быстрых" периферийных устройств

8. low-level routines – низко-уровневые программы, подпрограммы

9. interface (to, with) v – подключать, соединять с

10. manage v – управлять

11. boot (up) v – загружать(ся)

12. custom settings – пользовательские установки

13. be stored v – храниться

14. ROM (Read Only Memory) – постоянное запоминающее устройство

15. turn on – включать

16. sequence – последовательность

17. CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) - комплементарный металло-оксидный полупроводник

18. interrupt handler - обработчик прерываний, подпрограмма обработки прерываний

19. device driver - драйвер устройства

20. register – регистр, устройство сверхбыстродействующей памяти в процессоре, служащее для временного хранения управляющей информации, операндов и/или результатов выполняемых данной микросхемой операций.

21. power management (PM) - управление [электро]питанием

22. initialize v - инициализировать, задать начальное значение переменной

23. determine v – определять

24. initiate v - инициировать; запускать; включать

25. bootstrap sequence - программа самозагрузки, программа раскрутки

26. tiny – маленький, крошечный

27. Setup - программа или процедура начальной установки

28. alter v – изменять

29. particular – особый, специфичный

30. supplement v – дополнить

31. intercept v - перехватывать

32. shadow v – точно копировать

One of the most common uses of Flash memory is for the basic input/output system of your computer, commonly known as the BIOS. The BIOS software has a number of different roles, but its most important role is to load the operating system. When you turn on your computer and the microprocessor tries to execute its first instruction, it has to get that instruction from somewhere. It cannot get it from the operating system because the operating system is located on a hard disk, and the microprocessor cannot get to it without some instructions that tell it how. The BIOS provides those instructions. Some of the other common tasks that the BIOS performs include:

• A power-on self-test (POST) for all of the different hardware components in the system to make sure everything is working properly

• Activating other BIOS chips on different cards installed in the computer - For example, SCSI and graphics cards often have their own BIOS chips.

• Providing a set of low-level routines that the operating system uses to interface to different hardware devices - It is these routines that give the BIOS its name. They manage things like the keyboard, the screen, and the serial and parallel ports, especially when the computer is booting.

• Managing a collection of settings for the hard disks, clock, etc.

The BIOS is special software that interfaces the major hardware components of your computer with the operating system. It is usually stored on a Flash memory chip on the motherboard, but sometimes the chip is another type of ROM.

W hen you turn on your computer, the BIOS does several things. This is its usual sequence:

1. Check the CMOS Setup for custom settings

2. Load the interrupt handlers and device drivers

3. Initialize registers and power management

4. Perform the power-on self-test (POST)

5. Display system settings

6. Determine which devices are bootable

7. Initiate the bootstrap sequence

The first thing the BIOS does is check the information stored in a tiny (64 bytes) amount of RAM located on a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip. The CMOS Setup provides detailed information particular to your system and can be altered as your system changes. The BIOS uses this information to modify or supplement its default programming as needed.

Interrupt handlers are small pieces of software that act as translators between the hardware components and the operating system. For example, when you press a key on your keyboard, the signal is sent to the keyboard interrupt handler, which tells the CPU what it is and passes it on to the operating system. The device drivers are other pieces of software that identify the base hardware components such as keyboard, mouse, hard drive and floppy drive. Since the BIOS is constantly intercepting signals to and from the hardware, it is usually copied, or shadowed, into RAM to run faster.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. BIOS is a hardware supplied with the motherboard. T/F

2. Any microprocessor can execute its instructions without BIOS. T/F

3. The operating system is located in BIOS. T/F

4. POST is not run when computer is restarted. T/F

5. BIOS chips are present in many other devices installed in the computer. T/F

6. You can set the computer clock from BIOS. T/F

7. You cannot change settings in CMOS. T/F

8. You cannot change BIOS. T/F

9. BIOS routines serve as translators between hardware components and OS. T/F

10. BIOS is duplicated in RAM. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English

1. Самая важная роль БИОСа – это загрузка операционной системы.

2. Микропроцессор должен откуда то получить свою первую инструкцию.

3. БИОС поставляет ОС подпрограммы для запуска различных устройств.

4. БИОС использует КМОП для модификации установленной процедуры загрузки.

5. БИОС постоянно перехватывает сигналы от устройств.

13 Storing Data on a DVD (after Karim Nice)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. DVD (Digital versatile Disk) - цифровой многофункциональный диск

2. thickness – толщина

3. pit – ямка

4. bump – бугорок

5. track – дорожка (диска)

6. layer – слой

7. total v – достигать совокупной величины

8. injection molding – литьевое формование, литье под давлением

9. polycarbonate – сорт оптического пластика для изготовления CD

10. thin – тонкий

11. semi-reflective – полу-отражающий

12. sputter v - металлизировать напылением

13. inner – внутренний

14. outer – внешний

15. lacquer [`lWkB] – лак

16. coat v – покрывать

17. squeeze v – сжимать

18. cure v – термофиксировать

19. single-sided – односторонний

20. label – наклейка

21. silk-screen v – переносить методом шелко-трафаретной печати

22. cross section – срез

23. not to scale – не в масштабе

24. circle v – закручиваться

25. inside – внутренняя часть (диска)

26. nanometer (= nm) - нанометр, нм одна миллиардная доля метра

27. elongated – продолговатый

28. dimension – измерение

29. lift off v – снять

30. precise - точный

DVDs are of the same diameter and thickness as CDs, and they are made using some of the same materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is encoded in the form of small pits and bumps in the track of the disc.

A DVD is composed of several layers of plastic, totaling about 1.2 millimeters thick. Each layer is created by injection molding polycarbonate plastic. This process forms a disc that has microscopic bumps arranged as a single, continuous and extremely long spiral track of data.

Once the clear pieces of polycarbonate are formed, a thin reflective layer is sputtered onto the disc, covering the bumps. Aluminum is used behind the inner layers, but a semi-reflective gold layer is used for the outer layers, allowing the laser to focus through the outer and onto the inner layers. After all of the layers are made, each one is coated with lacquer, squeezed together and cured under infrared light. For single-sided discs, t he label is silk-screened onto the nonreadable side. Double-sided discs are printed only on the nonreadable area near the hole in the middle. Cross sections of the various types of completed DVDs (not to scale) look like this:

E ach writable layer of a DVD has a spiral track of data. On single-layer DVDs, the track always circles from the inside of the disc to the outside. That the spiral track starts at the center means that a single-layer DVD can be smaller than 12 centimeters if desired.

W hat the image to the right cannot impress upon you is how incredibly tiny the data track is -- just 740 nanometers separate one track from the next (a nanometer is a billionth of a meter). And the elongated bumps that make up the track are each 320 nanometers wide, a minimum of 400 nanometers long and 120 nanometers high. The following figure illustrates looking through the polycarbonate layer at the bumps.

You will often read about "pits" on a DVD instead of bumps. They appear as pits on the aluminum side, but on the side that the laser reads from, they are bumps.

The microscopic dimensions of the bumps make the spiral track on a DVD extremely long. If you could lift the data track off a single layer of a DVD, and stretch it out into a straight line, it would be almost 7.5 miles long! That means that a double-sided, double-layer DVD would have 30 miles (48 km) of data!

To read bumps this small you need an incredibly precise disc-reading mechanism.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. DVDs are very much different from CDs. T/F

2. There is only one layer of plastic in a DVD. T/F

3. The track of bumps on the disc is divided into many separate closed circles. T/F

4. The bumps are coated on the one side with something like a mirror. T/F

5. Laser reflects from the semi-reflective gold layer. T/F

6. Labels can be printed on both readable sides of double-sided discs if they are covered with lacquer. T/F

7. Double-sided DVD can be smaller than 12 centimeters if required. T/F

8. The distance between neighboring tracks is more than twice as big as the width of one bump. T/F

9. The bumps are rectangular. T/F

10. Bumps and pits are basically one and the same thing. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English

1. При изготовлении DVD используются те же материалы, что и при изготовлении CD.

2. Алюминий используется позади внутренних слоев.

3. Наклейка наносится шелко-трафаретным методом на нечитаемую сторону.

4. Спиральная дорожка начинается от центра диска.

5. Продолговатые бугорки имеют размер 320400120 нм.

14 Keyboard Technologies (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. audible – слышимый

2. tactile response – осязаемый отклик

3. click v – щелкать

4. key – клавиша

5. keyboard – клавиатура

6. spring back v – отскакивать назад, возвращаться в исходное положение

7. rubber dome switch – переключатель с резиновым куполом

8. flexible – гибкий

9. carbon – угольный

10. plunger on the bottom – шток на основании (клавиши)

11. key matrix – переключающая матрица

12. complete the circuit v – замыкать цепь

13. release v – отпускать (клавишу)

14. at rest position – положение в состоянии покоя

15. fairly resistant to …- довольно устойчивый к…

16. spill – пролитая жидкость

17. membrane switch – мембранный переключатель

18. rubber sheet – лист резины, клеенка

19. bulge – округлый выступ, выпуклость

20. extreme conditions – неблагоприятные условия

21. capacitive switch – емкостной ключ, переключатель

22. current – электрический ток

23. spring-loaded – снабженный пружиной

24. attach v – прикреплять

25. plate – пластина

26. keypress – нажатие клавиши

27. bounce – дрожание (матрицы от удара клавиш), приводящее к колебанию напряжения

28. metal contact switches – переключатели с металлическими контактами

29. strip of metal – полоска металла

30. spongy foam – губчатая (полимерная) пена

31. provide for – обеспечивать

32. tend to v – иметь склонность к

33. wear out v - изнашиваться

34. circuitry – схема (электрическая)

Keyboards use a variety of switch technologies. It is interesting to note that we generally like to have some audible and tactile response to our typing on a keyboard. We want to hear the keys "click" as we type, and we want the keys to feel firm and spring back quickly as we press them. Let's take a look at these different technologies:

P robably the most popular switch technology in use today is rubber dome. In these keyboards, each key sits over a small, flexible rubber dome with a hard carbon center. When the key is pressed, a plunger on the bottom of the key pushes down against the dome. This causes the carbon center to push down also, until it presses against a hard flat surface beneath the key matrix. As long as the key is held, the carbon center completes the circuit for that portion of the matrix. When the key is released, the rubber dome springs back to its original shape, forcing the key back up to its at-rest position.

Rubber dome switch keyboards are inexpensive, have pretty good tactile response and are fairly resistant to spills and corrosion because of the rubber layer covering the key matrix. Membrane switches are very similar in operation to rubber dome keyboards. A membrane keyboard does not have separate keys though. Instead, it has a single rubber sheet with bulges for each key. You have seen membrane switches on many devices designed for heavy industrial use or extreme conditions. Because they offer almost no tactile response and can be somewhat difficult to manipulate, these keyboards are seldom found on normal computer systems.

Capacitive switches are considered to be non-mechanical because they do not simply complete a circuit like the other keyboard technologies. Instead, current is constantly flowing through all parts of the key matrix. Each key is spring-loaded, and has a tiny plate attached to the bottom of the plunger. When a key is pressed, this plate is brought very close to another plate just below it. As the two plates are brought closer together, it affects the amount of current flowing through the matrix at that point. The processor detects the change and interprets it as a keypress for that location. Capacitive switch keyboards are expensive, but do not suffer from corrosion and have a longer life than any other keyboard. Also, they do not have problems with bounce since the two surfaces never come into actual contact.

Metal contact and foam element keyboards are not as common as they used to be. Metal contact switches simply have a spring-loaded key with a strip of metal on the bottom of the plunger. When the key is pressed, the metal strip connects the two parts of the circuit. The foam element switch is basically the same design but with a small piece of spongy foam between the bottom of the plunger and the metal strip, providing for a better tactile response. Both technologies have good tactile response, make satisfyingly audible "clicks" and are inexpensive to produce. The problem is that the contacts tend to wear out or corrode faster than on keyboards that use other technologies. Also, there is no barrier that prevents dust or liquids from coming in direct contact with the circuitry of the key matrix.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. All keyboards use basically one and the same technology. T/F

2. A rubber dome switch breaks the circuit in a certain location of a key matrix when a key is pressed. T/F

3. Rubber dome switch keyboards are rather cheap. T/F

4. Membrane switch keyboards have no rubber parts. T/F

5. Membrane keyboards are not general purpose keyboards. T/F

6. Rubber dome, metal contact and foam element keyboards are mechanical. T/F

7. Capacitive switch keyboard is non-mechanical. T/F

8. Any small change in current in capacitive switch keyboards detected by a keyboard processor is interpreted as a keypress. T/F

9. Foam key element keyboards do not have “clicks”. T/F

10. Metal contact and foam element keyboards are not resistant to spills. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English

1. Мы любим слышать щелканье клавиш при наборе текстов.

2. Когда клавишу отпускают, резиновый купол возвращается в обычное состояние.

3. Ток постоянно проходит по всем участкам переключающей матрицы.

4. Металло-контактные клавиатуры сейчас уже не так распространены, как прежде.

5. Пористая пена обеспечивает лучшую осязательную реакцию.

15 Types of Infection: E-mail viruses (after Marshall Brain)

Ex.1 Study the active vocabulary

1. piggyback v – размещаться поверх, вторым ярусом

2. attach to v – прикреплять(ся) к

3. spreadsheet – электронная таблица

4. wreak havoc v – причинять вред, вызывать разрушение

5. replicate v – воспроизводить

6. victim – жертва

7. worm – червь (тип вируса)

8. security hole – дыра в системе безопасности

9. scan smth for v… – просматривать что-то в поисках…

10. take advantage of v – воспользоваться

11. vulnerability - уязвимость

12. ISAPI (Internet Server Application Program Interface) - интерфейс прикладного программирования

13. approximately – приблизительно

14. slammer – (слэнг) тюрьма

15. cause mayhem v - нанести увечье

16. SQL [si:kwBl] (Structured Query Language) - язык структурированных запросов

17. Trojan horse - "Троянский конь", троянец (тип вируса)

18. claim v – претендовать

19. do damage v – наносить ущерб

20. erase v – стереть

21. spectacular – впечатляющий, эффектный

22. via – через, посредством

23. trigger the virus v – приводить в действие вирус

24. recipient – получатель

25. attachment – приложение

26. corrupt v – портить

27. VBA (Visual Basic for Applications) - язык программирования visual Basic для прикладных программ

28. create a huge mess – создать большой беспорядок

When you listen to the news, you hear about many different forms of electronic infection. The most common are:

• Viruses - A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs. For example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program. Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs, too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other programs) or wreak havoc.

• E-mail viruses - An e-mail virus moves around in e-mail messages, and usually replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the victim's e-mail address book.

• Worms - A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and security holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a specific security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and then starts replicating from there, as well. For example, the Code Red worm took advantage of vulnerabily in the Microsoft Internet Server Application Program Interface (ISAPI) service and replicated itself over 250,000 times in approximately nine hours on July 19, 2001. The Slammer worm (which caused mayhem in January 2003) exploited a hole in Microsoft's SQL server.

• Trojan horses - A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The program claims to do one thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.

The latest thing in the world of computer viruses is the e-mail virus, and the Melissa virus in March 1999 was spectacular. Melissa spread in Microsoft Word documents sent via e-mail, and it worked like this:

Someone created the virus as a Word document uploaded to an Internet newsgroup. Anyone who downloaded the document and opened it would trigger the virus. The virus would then send the document (and therefore itself) in an e-mail message to the first 50 people in the person's address book. The e-mail message contained a friendly note that included the person's name, so the recipient would open the document thinking it was harmless. The virus would then create 50 new messages from the recipient's machine. As a result, the Melissa virus was the fastest-spreading virus ever seen! It forced a number of large companies to shut down their e-mail systems.

The ILOVEYOU virus, which appeared on May 4, 2000, was even simpler. It contained a piece of code as an attachment. People who double clicked on the attachment allowed the code to execute. The code sent copies of itself to everyone in the victim's address book and then started corrupting files on the victim's machine. This is as simple as a virus can get. It is really more of a Trojan horse distributed by e-mail than it is a virus.

The Melissa virus took advantage of the programming language built into Microsoft Word called VBA, or Visual Basic for Applications. It is a complete programming language and it can be programmed to do things like modify files and send e-mail messages. It also has a useful but dangerous auto-execute feature. A programmer can insert a program into a document that runs instantly whenever the document is opened. This is how the Melissa virus was programmed. Anyone who opened a document infected with Melissa would immediately activate the virus. It would send the 50 e-mails, and then infect a central file called NORMAL.DOT so that any file saved later would also contain the virus! It created a huge mess.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. A virus can piggyback on a spreadsheet document. T/F

2. An e-mail virus replicates itself a dozen times in the victim’s address book. T/F

3. A worm takes advantage of a security hole in a recipient’s computer. T/F

4. The aim of a worm is to wreak havoc on a specific computer. T/F

5. Trojan horse pretends to be something that it is not and it can’t replicate itself. T/F

6. E-mail viruses were among the earliest known types of electronic infection. T/F

7. The Melissa virus was one of the most harmless. T/F

8. The ILOVEYOU virus was triggered off as soon as you single clicked on the attachment of an e-mail message. T/F

9. The auto-execute feature of VBA is useful and harmless. T/F

10. You don’t have to open a document to make Melissa work. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English

1. Вирус может размножиться, прикрепляясь к другим программам, или нанести ущерб.

2. Вирус Красный код (Code Red) использовал уязвимость интерфейса прикладного программирования в Майкрософт офисе.

3. Кто-то создал и загрузил вирус как документ Word на сайт новостей Интернет.

4. Вирус Мелисса вынудил ряд Интернет компаний закрыть свои почтовые серверы.

5. ЯЛЮБЛЮТЕБЯ более похож на троянца, распространяемого через электронную почту, чем на обычный почтовый вирус.

16 Flash Basics (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex.1 Study the active vocabulary

1. console – пульт управления

2. solid state storage device – твердотельное устройство запоминания

3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) - электрически стираемое программируемое постоянное запоминающее устройство, ЭСППЗУ

4. grid – решетка

5. column – вертикальная шина

6. row – горизонтальная шина

7. cell – ячейка

8. intersection - пересечение

9. oxide layer – слой окислов

10. floating gate – плавающий затвор

11. control gate – затвор полевого транзистора

12. word line - числовая шина

13. tunneling - туннельный эффект

14. alter v - изменить

15. placement – расположение

16. electric charge – электрический заряд

17. bit line - разрядная шина

18. drain to a ground v – стекать на землю, заземляться

19. electron gun – электронная пушка

20. excited electrons – возбужденные электроны

21. trap v– захватывать в ловушку

22. cell sensor – чувствительный датчик ячейки

23. monitor v - контролировать

24. threshold [`IreGhBLld] - порог

25. blank – чистый, без записанной информации

26. in-circuit wiring – внутрисхемная разводка

27. predetermined section – заданный сектор

28. block – блок, одна физическая запись данных на носителе

29. targeted – намеченный, заданный

30. preset - предварительная установка

31. maintain v – поддерживать

32. pull current – забирать электричество

E lectronic memory comes in a variety of forms to serve a variety of purposes. Flash memory is used for easy and fast information storage in such devices as digital cameras and home video game consoles. It is used more as a hard drive than as RAM. In fact, Flash memory is considered a solid state storage device. Solid state means that there are no moving parts -- everything is electronic instead of mechanical.

Flash memory is a type of EEPROM chip. It has a grid of columns and rows with a cell that has two transistors at each intersection. The two transistors are separated from each other by a thin oxide layer. One of the transistors is known as a floating gate, and t he other one is the control gate. The floating gate's only link to the row, or wordline, is through the control gate. As long as this link is in place, the cell has a value of 1. To change the value to a 0 requires a curious process called Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.

Tunneling is used to alter the placement of electrons in the floating gate. An electrical charge, usually 10 to 13 volts, is applied to the floating gate. The charge comes from the column, or bitline, enters the floating gate and drains to a ground.

This charge causes the floating-gate transistor to act like an electron gun. The excited electrons are pushed through and trapped on other side of the thin oxide layer, giving it a negative charge. These negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate and the floating gate. A special device called a cell sensor monitors the level of the charge passing through the floating gate. If the flow through the gate is greater than 50 percent of the charge, it has a value of 1. When the charge passing through drops below the 50-percent threshold, the value changes to 0. A blank EEPROM has all of the gates fully open, giving each cell a value of 1.

The electrons in the cells of a Flash-memory chip can be returned to normal ("1") by the application of an electric field, a higher-voltage charge. Flash memory uses in-circuit wiring to apply the electric field either to the entire chip or to predetermined sections known as blocks. This erases the targeted area of the chip, which can then be rewritten. Flash memory works much faster than traditional EEPROMs because instead of erasing one byte at a time, it erases a block or the entire chip, and then rewrites it.

You may think that your car radio has Flash memory, since you are able to program the presets and the radio remembers them. But it is actually using Flash RAM. The difference is that Flash RAM has to have some power to maintain its contents, while Flash memory will maintain its data without any external source of power. Even though you have turned the power off, the car radio is pulling a tiny amount of current to preserve the data in the Flash RAM. That is why the radio will lose its presets if your car battery dies or the wires are disconnected.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. There is not much variety in form and purpose among the types of electronic memory. T/F

2. There are no mechanical parts in a flash memory. T/F

3. Flash memory is electrically erasable. T/F

4. Floating gate and control gate are parts of one transistor. T/F

5. The word line is the synonym to a row, while the bit line is synonymous with a column. T/F

6. Negatively charged electrons act as a barrier between the control gate and the floating gate. T/F

7. The cell has the value of 0 when the charge passing through the floating gate overpasses the threshold level of 50%. T/F

8. Flash memory is very quick because it erases data in blocks but not in bytes. T/F

9. Presets of a car radio use the flash memory. T/F

10. Flash memory depends on the state of a battery. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Флэш-память используется для легкого и быстрого сохранения информации.

2. Твердотельные устройства запоминания не имеют механических частей.

3. Плавающий затвор может соединиться с числовой шиной только через затвор полевого транзистора.

4. Возбужденные электроны удерживаются на другой стороне оксидного слоя.

5. Во флэш-памяти используется внутрисхемная разводка.

17 Removable Flash Memory Cards (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex.1. Study the active vocabulary

1. removable – сменный, съемный

2. increasingly – все больше и больше

3. smart – интеллектуальный, с развитой логикой

4. Smart Media card - карта памяти фирмы Toshiba для подключения (фотокамеры) к ПК

5. electronic film – электронная пленка

6. solid-state floppy-disk card – твердотельная гибкая карта памяти

7. develop v – разрабатывать

8. range v – колебаться в пределах

9. plane electrode – плоский электрод

10. bonding wire – соединительный провод

11. embed v – вделывать, вставлять

12. resin [`rezNn] – смола, полимер

13. over-molded thin package (OMTP) – запрессованный тонкий корпус

14. soldering – пайка

15. glue v – приклеивать

16. notched corner – срезанный угол

17. face up v – располагаться лицевой частью вверх

18. increment – приращение, шаг

19. rugged [`rHgNd] – зд. крепкий, прочный

20. handle v – обращаться

21. circuit board - печатная [схемная] плата

22. dedicated controller - выделенный контроллер

23. encase v – помещать в упаковку

24. shell - кожух

25. voltage – напряжение

26. onboard adj. – встроенный в плату

27. PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association) - Международная ассоциация производителей карт памяти для персональных компьютеров

28. card slot - гнездо для платы/карты

29. memory stick - карта памяти (цифрового фотоаппарата)

30. array – набор

31. show up - появляться

While your computer's BIOS chip is the most common form of Flash memory, removable solid-state storage devices are becoming increasingly popular. SmartMedia and CompactFlash cards are both well-known, especially as "electronic film" for digital cameras. But there are also other types of flash memory devices.

The solid-state floppy-disk card (SSFDC), better known as SmartMedia, was originally developed by Toshiba.

SmartMedia cards are available in capacities ranging from 2 MB to 128 MB. The card itself is quite small, approximately 45 mm long, 37 mm wide and less than 1 mm thick. This is amazing when you consider what is packed into such a tiny package!

A s shown on the right, SmartMedia cards are elegant in their simplicity. A plane electrode is connected to the Flash-memory chip by bonding wires. The Flash-memory chip, plane electrode and bonding wires are embedded in a resin using a technique called over-molded thin package (OMTP). This allows everything to be integrated into a single package without the need for soldering.

The OMTP module is glued to a base card to create the actual card. Power and data is carried by the electrode to the Flash-memory chip when the card is inserted into a device. A notched corner indicates the power requirements of the SmartMedia card. Looking at the card with the electrode facing up, if the notch is on the left side, the card needs 5 volts. If the notch is on the right side, it requires 3.3 volts.

SmartMedia cards erase, write and read memory in small blocks (256- or 512-byte increments). This approach means that they are capable of fast, reliable performance while allowing you to specify which data you wish to keep. They are small, lightweight and easy to use. They are less rugged than other forms of removable solid-state storage, so you should be very careful when handling and storing them.

CompactFlash cards were developed by Sandisk in 1994, and they are different from SmartMedia cards in two important ways:

They are thicker.

They utilize a controller chip.

C ompactFlash consists of a small circuit board with Flash-memory chips and a dedicated controller chip, all encased in a rugged shell that is several times thicker than a SmartMedia card.

As shown on the right, CompactFlash cards are 43 mm wide and 36 mm long, and come in two thicknesses: Type I cards are 3.3 mm thick, and Type II cards are 5.5 mm thick.

CompactFlash cards support dual voltage and will operate at either 3.3 volts or 5 volts.

The increased thickness of the card allows for greater storage capacity than SmartMedia cards. CompactFlash sizes range from 8 MB to 6GB. The onboard controller can increase performance, particularly on devices that have slow processors. The case and controller chip add size, weight and complexity to the CompactFlash card when compared to the SmartMedia card.

Both SmartMedia and CompactFlash, as well as PCMCIA Type I and Type II memory cards, adhere to standards developed by the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA). Because of these standards, it is easy to use CompactFlash and SmartMedia products in a variety of devices. You can also buy adapters that allow you to access these cards through a standard floppy drive, USB port or PCMCIA card slot (like the one you find on a laptop computer). Sony's Memory Stick is available in a large array of products offered by Sony, and is now showing up in products from other manufacturers as well.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. BIOS is one of the removable solid-state storage devices. T/F

2. SmartMedia and CompactFlash are the only 2 existing types of flash memory. T/F

3. SmartMedia card is rectangular, flexible and very thin. T/F

4. A plane electrode, bonding wires and Flash-memory chip are soldered together. T/F

5. SmartMedia flash memory chip has its own power source. T/F

6. You can apply 5 volts to a SmartMedia card notched on the left. T/F

7. SmartMedia cards erase or write one byte at a time. T/F

8. CompactFlash cards are rectangular, rugged and with onboard controller. T/F

9. All producers of flash cards adhere to PCMCA standars. T/F

10. Sony’s Memory Stick is not a flash card. T/F

Ex.3. Translate from Russian into English

1. Твердотельная гибкая карта была впервые разработана фирмой Тошиба.

2. Это удивительно, сколько упаковано в этот малюсенький корпус.

3. Запрессованный тонкий корпус вклеивается в базовую карту.

4. Срезанный угол указывает на требуемое напряжение.

5. Встроенный контроллер может увеличивать быстродействие.

18 How Telephones Work (after Marshal Brain)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. take smth for granted v – принимать что-либо как само собой разумеещееся

2. pick up v – взять

3. dial [daiBl] v – набрать (номер)

4. digit – число

5. two-way – двусторонний

6. extend – простираться

7. entire – весь, целый

8. phone tower – телефонная вышка, башня

9. long distance exchange – телефонная станция (АТС) дальней связи

10. antique [Wn`ti:k]– древний, старинный

11. wall jack – стенная розетка, гнездо

12. switch – выключатель

13. hook switch - рычаг ТФА (телефонного аппарата)

14. handset – телефонная трубка

15. speaker – динамик

16. carbon granules – угольные гранулы

17. resistance – сопротивление

18. modulate current v – модулировать ток (понижать)

19. tap v – нажимать

20. rapidly – быстро

21. pulse dialing - импульсный (дисковый) набор телефонного номера

22. previous – предыдущий

23. duplex coil – двусторонняя катушка, катушка обратной связи

24. bell – звонок

25. touch-tone keypad – клавиатура тонального (кнопочного) набора

26. frequency generator - генератор частоты

27. amplifier – усилитель

28. circuit – схема

29. loading coil - пупиновская катушка

Although most of us take it completely for granted, the telephone you have in your house is one of the most amazing devices ever created. If you want to talk to someone, a ll you have to do is pick up the phone and dial a few digits. You are instantly connected to that person, and you can have a two-way conversation. The telephone network extends worldwide, so you can reach nearly anyone on the planet. When you compare that to the state of the world just 100 years ago, when it might have taken several weeks to get a one-way written message to someone, you realize just how amazing the telephone is! This illustration shows the entire telephone network, including a home connection, cell phone towers, long distance exchanges and transcontinental connections.

In this article, we will look at the telephone device that you have in your house as well as the telephone network it connects to so you can make and receive calls.

S urprisingly, a telephone is one of the simplest devices you have in your house. It is so simple because the telephone connection to your house has not changed in nearly a century. If you have an antique phone from the 1920s, you could connect it to the wall jack in your house and it would work fine!

The very simplest working telephone would look like this inside:

As you can see, it only contains three parts and they are all simple:

• A switch to connect and disconnect the phone from the network - This switch is generally called the hook switch. It connects when you lift the handset.

• A speaker - This is generally a little 50-cent, 8-ohm speaker of some sort.

• A microphone - In the past, telephone microphones have been as simple as carbon granules compressed between two thin metal plates. Sound waves from your voice compress and decompress the granules, changing the resistance of the granules and modulating the current flowing through the microphone.

That's it! You can dial this simple phone by rapidly tapping the hook switch -- all telephone switches still recognize "pulse dialing." If you pick the phone up and rapidly tap the switch hook four times, the phone company's switch will understand that you have dialed a "4."

The only problem with the phone shown on the previous page is that when you talk, you will hear your voice through the speaker. Most people find that annoying, so any "real" phone contains a device called a duplex coil or something functionally equivalent to block the sound of your own voice from reaching your ear. A modern telephone also includes a bell so it can ring and a touch-tone keypad and frequency generator. A "real" phone looks like this:

S till, it's pretty simple. In a modern phone there is an electronic microphone, amplifier and circuit to replace the carbon granules and loading coil. The mechanical bell is often replaced by a speaker and a circuit to generate a pleasant ringing tone. But a regular $6.95 telephone remains one of the simplest devices ever.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false

1. You can reach anyone on the planet through the telephone network. T/F

2. Transcontinental connections are a part of the entire telephone network. T/F

3. An antique phone from the 1920s won’t work in a modern flat. T/F

4. When you put down the hand set the hook switch disconnects you. T/F

5. A speaker in a simple telephone may cost more than 50 cents. T/F

6. Microphones had basically the same structure as speakers in the past. T/F

7. Pulse dialing is a series of successive connections and disconnections. T/F

8. Most people like to hear their own voice when they speak over the phone. T/F

9. A duplex coil amplifies the sound of your voice so that you could hear it well. T/F

10. In modern phones electronic devices replace carbon granules and loading coil. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English

1. Многие из нас смотрят на телефон как на что-то само собой разумеющееся.

2. Телефонная сеть простирается по всему миру.

3. Проводное телефонное соединение мало изменилось в течение почти целого века.

4. Современный телефон включает звонок, клавиатуру тонального набора и генератор частоты.

5. Электромеханический звонок часто заменяют динамиком.

19 The Telephone Network: Wires and Cables. Digitizing and Delivering (after Marshall Brain)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. copper – медный

2. box at the road – придорожный (распределительный) шкаф

3. phone jack – телефонная розетка

4. digital concentrator - цифровой концентратор ( каналов связи )

5. digitize v - переводить в цифровую форму, оцифровывать

6. sample rate - частота опроса

7. sample [sA:mpl] – выборка, звуковой фрагмент

8. resolution – разрешение

9. coax (co-ax) cable – коаксиальный кабель

10. fiber-optic cable - волоконно-оптический кабель, ВОК, оптокабель

11. line card - линейная плата; линейная карта

12. switch – коммутатор

13. dial tone - непрерывный гудок в телефонной трубке, в более широком смысле - готовность сети осуществить соединение

14. loop – контур

15. receiving party - принимающее лицо

16. transmit v – передавать

17. intercom system – система внутренней связи

18. radio shack – радио кабина, зд. радио лавка

19. wire up v – подключать (при помощи проводов)

20. DC (direct current) – постоянный ток

21. relax v – ослаблять, разряжать

22. play v – проигрывать

23. hardware discount store – магазин скобяных товаров

24. discount store – магазин уцененных товаров

25. strip the wires – зачистить провода

26. hook in v – подключить, подсоединить

27. AC (alternating current) - переменный ток

28. hand crank - заводная (пусковая) рукоятка

The telephone network starts in your house. A pair of copper wires runs from a box at the road to a box (often called an entrance bridge) at your house. From there, the pair of wires is connected to each phone jack in your house (usually using red and green wires). If your house has two phone lines, then two separate pairs of copper wires run from the road to your house. The second pair is usually colored yellow and black inside your house. Along the road runs a thick cable packed with 100 or more copper pairs. Depending on where you are located, this thick cable will run directly to the phone company's switch in your area or it will run to a box about the size of a refrigerator that acts as a digital concentrator.

The concentrator digitizes your voice at a sample rate of 8,000 samples per second and 8-bit resolution. It then combines your voice with dozens of others and sends them all down a single wire (usually a coax cable or a fiber-optic cable) to the phone company office. Either way, your line connects into a line card at the switch so you can hear the dial tone when you pick up your phone.

If you are calling someone connected to the same office, then the switch simply creates a loop between your phone and the phone of the person you called. If it's a long-distance call, then your voice is digitized and combined with millions of other voices on the long-distance network. Your voice normally travels over a fiber-optic line to the office of the receiving party, but it may also be transmitted by satellite or by microwave towers.

N ot only is a telephone a simple device, but the connection between you and the phone company is even simpler. In fact, you can easily create your own intercom system using two telephones, a 9-volt battery (or some other simple power supply) and a 300-ohm resistor that you can get for a dollar at Radio Shack. You can wire it up like this:

Your connection to the phone company consists of two copper wires. Usually they are red and green. The green wire is common, and the red wire supplies your phone with 6 to 12 volts DC at about 30 milliamps. If you think about a simple carbon granule microphone, all it is doing is modulating that current (letting more or less current through depending on how the sound waves compress and relax the granules), and the speaker at the other end "plays" that modulated signal. That's all there is to it!

The easiest way to wire up a private intercom like this is to go to a hardware or discount store and buy a 100-foot phone cord. Cut it, strip the wires and hook in the battery and resistor as shown. (Most cheap phone cords contain only two wires, but if the one you buy happens to have four, then use the center two.) When two people pick up the phones together, they can talk to each other just fine. This sort of arrangement will work at distances of up to several miles apart.

The only thing your little intercom cannot do is ring the phone to tell the person at the other end to pick up. The "ring" signal is a 90-volt AC wave at 20 hertz (Hz).

You probably know that the hand crank on those old-fashioned telephones was used to generate the ring-signal AC wave and sound the bell at the other end!

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. The phone wires inside your house are always red and green in color. T/F

2. The telephone cables usually run along the roads. T/F

3. The concentrator turns your voice into digital format and records it. T/F

4. A coax cable substitutes dozens of copper cables. T/F

5. A line card at the switch supports a dial up tone that you hear when you pick up your phone. T/F

6. Every time you are calling someone the switch at your end creates a loop. T/F

7. There are different ways of transmitting your voice in telephone network when you make a local call. T/F

8. You don’t have to use expensive equipment to create a home intercom system. T/F

9. You need direct current supply to speak over your little intercom system. T/F

10. You can tell a person at the other end of your home intercom to pick up by a ring.T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Пара телефонных проводов соединяет телефонные розетки в твоем доме.

2. Твоя линия подсоединяется к линейной плате на коммутаторе.

3. Обрежь провода, зачисти концы и подсоедини батарею и сопротивление как показано на рисунке.

4. Если тебе попался четырехжильный провод, используй две центральные жилы.

5. Это устройство будет работать на расстоянии до нескольких миль.

20 Calling Someone by Phone. Tones (after Marshal Brain)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. call someone by phone – звонить кому-либо по телефону

2. manual switchboard – коммутатор с ручным переключением

3. jack – пружинный переключатель, джек

4. pick up a handset v – поднимать трубку (телефона)

5. complete the circuit v – замкнуть цепь

6. light bulb – электрическая лампочка

7. headset – головной телефон

8. exactly – точно

9. intercom – переговорное устройство с микрофоном и динамиком в соседней комнате

10. sense v – обнаруживать, распознавать

11. completion of a loop – замыкание контура

12. dial tone - непрерывный гудок в телефонной трубке, в более широком смысле - готовность сети осуществить соединение

13. busy – занят (о номере)

14. cycle of one half-second on/off – периодичность чередования (сигнал-пауза) в полсекунды

15. long-distance call – междугородный вызов

16. bandwidth – ширина полосы пропускания

17. eliminate v – устранить, убрать

18. distinctive sound – отличное от других (голосов) звучание

19. have trouble hearing smth v - с трудом слышать что-либо

20. clip off v – срезать

If you go back to the days of the manual switchboard, it is easy to understand how the larger phone system works. In the days of the manual switchboard, there was a pair of copper wires running from every house to a central office in the middle of town. The switchboard operator sat in front of a board with one jack for every pair of wires entering the office.

Above each jack was a small light. A large battery supplied current through a resistor to each wire pair. When someone picked up the handset on his or her telephone, the hook switch would complete the circuit and let current flow through wires between the house and the office. This would light the light bulb above that person's jack on the switchboard. The operator would connect his/her headset into that jack and ask who the person would like to talk to. The operator would then send a ring signal to the receiving party and wait for the party to pick up the phone. Once the receiving party picked up, the operator would connect the two people together in exactly the same way the simple intercom is connected! It is that simple!

I n a modern phone system, the operator has been replaced by an electronic switch. When you pick up the phone, the switch senses the completion of your loop and it plays a dial tone sound so you know that the switch and your phone are working. The dial tone sound is simply a combination of 350-hertz tone and a 440-hertz tone. That is standard in the USA, in other countries there may be variations.

You then dial the number using a touch-tone keypad. The different dialing sounds are made of pairs of tones, as shown here:

If the number is busy, you hear a busy signal that is made up of a 480-hertz and a 620-hertz tone, with a cycle of one-half second on and one-half second off.

In order to allow more long-distance calls to be transmitted, the frequencies transmitted are limited to a bandwidth of about 3,000 hertz. All of the frequencies in your voice below 400 hertz and above 3,400 hertz are eliminated. That's why someone's voice on a phone has a distinctive sound.

You can prove that this sort of filtering actually happens by using the following sound files:

1,000-hertz tone 2,000-hertz tone 3,000-hertz tone 4,000-hertz tone 5,000-hertz tone 6,000-hertz tone

Call up someone you know and play the 1,000-hertz sound file on your computer. The person will be able to hear the tone clearly. The person will also be able to hear the 2,000- and 3,000-hertz tones. However, the person will have trouble hearing the 4,000-hertz tone, and will not hear the 5,000- or 6,000-hertz tones at all! That's because the phone company clips them off completely.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. Switchboards were automatic from the very start of telephone. T/F

2. A pair of copper wires connected every house telephone with a central office. T/F

3. There was a separate jack for every wire entering a switchboard. T/F

4. People let the current flow through wires by picking up handsets of their phones. T/F

5. Light bulbs were connected to an operator’s headset. T/F

6. The operator had to wait for the receiving party to answer. T/F

7. The dial tone sound doesn’t mean anything now. T/F

8. In all countries the dial tone sound is a combination of two tones. T/F

9. The dialing sounds of a touch-tone keypad are all different. T/F

10. The voice has a distinctive sound on a phone because the transmitted bandwidth is exactly 3,000 hertz. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Наберите номер используя клавиатуру тонального набора.

2. Сигнал «занято» имеет периодичность повторения и паузы в полсекунды.

3. Передаваемые частоты ограничены полосой пропускания порядка 3000 герц.

4. Фильтровка сигнала действительно имеет место.

5. Человек с трудом услышит звук частотой 4000 герц по телефону.

21 How Digital Cameras Work: CMOS and CCD sensors (after Tracy V. Wilson, K. Nice, G. Gurevich)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. conventional camera – обычный фотоаппарат

2. digital camera – цифровой фотоаппарат

3. piece of film – кусок пленки

4. convert v – превращать

5. electric charge – электрический заряд

6. image sensor - формирователь изображения; датчик изображения

7. CCD (charge-coupled device) - прибор с зарядовой связью, ПЗС

8. CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) - комплементарный металло-оксидный полупроводник

9. 2-D array – двухмерный массив, матрица

10. solar cell – солнечный элемент

11. read the value – считывать значение

12. accumulated charge – накопленный заряд

13. kick in v – зд. вступать в действие

14. ADC (analog-to-digital converter) - аналогово-цифровой преобразователь

15. photosite – фотоэлемент

16. amplify v – усилить (электрический сигнал)

17. pros and cons – «за» и «против»

18. low-noise image – картинка с низким уровнем шума (электрических помех)

19. susceptible - восприимчивый

20. light sensitivity – светочувствительность

21. mature – зрелый

Just like a conventional camera, a digital camera has a series of lenses that focus light to create an image of a scene. But instead of focusing this light onto a piece of film, it focuses it onto a semiconductor device that records light electronically. A computer then breaks this electronic information down into digital data.

A digital camera has a sensor that converts light into electrical charges. The image sensor employed by most digital cameras is a charge coupled device (CCD). Some cameras use complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology instead. Both CCD and CMOS image sensors convert light into electrons. A simplified way to think about these sensors is to think of a 2-D array of thousands or millions of tiny solar cells.

O nce the sensor converts the light into electrons, it reads the value (accumulated charge) of each cell in the image. This is where the differences between the two main sensor types kick in:

• A CCD transports the charge across the chip and reads it at one corner of the array. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) then turns each pixel's value into a digital value by measuring the amount of charge at each photosite and converting that measurement to binary form.

• CMOS devices use several transistors at each pixel to amplify and move the charge using more traditional wires. The CMOS signal is digital, so it needs no ADC.

• Differences between the two types of sensors lead to a number of pros and cons:

• CCD sensors create high-quality, low-noise images. CMOS sensors are generally more susceptible to noise.

• Because each pixel on a CMOS sensor has several transistors located next to it, the light sensitivity of a CMOS chip is lower. Many of the photons hit the transistors instead of the photodiode.

• CMOS sensors traditionally consume little power. CCDs, on the other hand, use a process that consumes lots of power. CCDs consume as much as 100 times more power than an equivalent CMOS sensor.

• CCD sensors have been mass produced for a longer period of time, so they are more mature. They tend to have higher quality pixels, and more of them.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. The light in a digital camera is focused electronically. T/F

2. A computer converts light into electric charges. T/F

3. There are two main types of image sensors. T/F

4. An image sensor resembles a solar cell. T/F

5. A CCD sensor needs an analogue-to-digital converter. T/F

6. SMOS sensors use several transistors at the corner of the array. T/F

7. SMOS sensors create high-noise images. T/F

8. CCD and SMOS sensors have equal light sensitivity. T/F

9. A CCD sensor is a type of a photodiode. T/F

10. SMOS sensors consume less power than CCDs. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Сенсор считывает электрический заряд с каждого элемента.

2. Аналого-числовой преобразователь преобразует значение каждого пикселя в числовое.

3. Комплементарные металло-оксидные полупроводниковые сенсоры более подвержены электрическому шуму.

4. Много фотонов попадает на транзисторы, вместо светодиодов.

5. Пиксели ПЗС более качественные.

22 How Digital Cameras Work: Resolution (after Tracy V. Wilson, K. Nice, G. Gurevich)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

22. resolution - разрешение

23. capture v – захватывать, фиксировать

24. blurry – расплывчатый, смазанный

25. unacceptable – неприемлемый

26. post a picture v – вывешивать картинку (на сайте)

27. print v – отпечатать

28. print n – отпечаток

29. top-of-the-line - самая новая или высокопроизводительная модель в линии изделий;

30. setting - настройка

31. high-end – высококачественный

32. estimate v – считать, полагать

33. cool facts – впечатляющие факты

34. consumer-oriented – ориентированный на массового потребителя

35. inadvertently – непреднамеренно

36. camcorder - портативная видеокамера, которая записывает как изображение, так и звук

37. compute v – зд. сходиться (о результате вычислений)

38. round off v – округлять

39. trickery – обман, мошенничество

40. discrepancy – несоответствие, расхождение

41. dye v - красить

The amount of detail that the camera can capture is called the resolution, and it is measured in pixels. The more pixels a camera has, the more detail it can capture and the larger pictures can be without becoming blurry.

Some typical resolutions include:

• 256x256 - Found on very cheap cameras, this resolution is so low that the picture quality is almost always unacceptable. This is 65,000 total pixels.

• 640x480 - This is the low end on most "real" cameras. This resolution is ideal for e-mailing pictures or posting pictures on a Web site.

• 1216x912 - This is a "megapixel" image size -- 1,109,000 total pixels -- good for printing pictures.

• 1600x1200 - With almost 2 million total pixels, this is "high resolution." You can print a 4x5 inch print taken at this resolution with the same quality that you would get from a photo lab.

• 2240x1680 - Found on 4 megapixel cameras -- the current standard -- this allows even larger printed photos, with good quality for prints up to 16x20 inches.

• 4064x2704 - A top-of-the-line digital camera with 11.1 megapixels takes pictures at this resolution. At this setting, you can create 13.5x9 inch prints with no loss of picture quality.

High-end consumer cameras can capture over 12 million pixels. Some professional cameras support over 16 million pixels, or 20 million pixels for large-format cameras. For comparison, Hewlett Packard estimates that the quality of 35mm film is about 20 million pixels.

Cool Facts

• With a 3-megapixel camera, you can take a higher-resolution picture than most computer monitors can display.

• You can use your Web browser to view digital pictures taken using the JPEG format.

• The first consumer-oriented digital cameras were sold by Kodak and Apple in 1994.

• In 1998, Sony inadvertently sold more than 700,000 camcorders with a limited ability to see through clothes.

How Many Pixels?

You may have noticed that the number of pixels and the maximum resolution don't quite compute. For example, a 2.1-megapixel camera can produce images with a resolution of 1600x1200, or 1,920,000 pixels. But "2.1 megapixel" means there should be at least 2,100,000 pixels.

This isn't an error from rounding off or binary mathematical trickery. There is a real discrepancy between these numbers because the CCD has to include circuitry for the ADC to measure the charge. This circuitry is dyed black so that it doesn't absorb light and distort the image.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. Resolution has to do with the amount of details the camera can capture. T/F

2. Resolution 256x256 is ideal for e-mailing pictures. T/F

3. Resolution over 2 million total pixels is called high. T/F

4. There is no loss in quality in pictures taken by a 1600x1200 pixel camera. T/F

5. The photo taken with a conventional camera on a 35mm film will be better than the one taken by 16 million pixel digital camera. T/F

6. Computer monitors cannot display a photo taken by a 3mega-pixel camera. T/F

7. Some camcorders could to see through clothes. T/F

8. The number of pixels and the maximum resolution compute exactly. T/F

9. 2 mega-pixels are actually less than 2000000 pixels. T/F

10. Some pixels are dyed black to cover the circuitry. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Высококачественные любительские фотоаппараты могут воспринимать свыше 12 миллионов пикселей.

2. В сети можно посмотреть сделанные цифровые фото в JPEG-формате.

3. 2,1-мегапиксельный фотоаппарат может делать снимки с разрешением 1,920,000 пикселей.

4. Между этими числами есть несоответствие.

5. Проводка ПЗС окрашена черной краской.

23 How Digital Cameras Work: Capturing Color (after Tracy V. Wilson, K. Nice, G. Gurevich)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. colorblind – ахроматический, нечувствительный к цвету

2. beam splitter – светоделитель

3. direct v – направлять

4. primary colors – первичные цвета (зеленый, красный, синий)

5. tend to v – иметь тенденцию к (тому, чтобы)

6. bulky – громоздкий

7. rotate v – вращать

8. in rapid succession – в быстрой последовательности

9. target – объект, на который нацелен фотоаппарат

10. stationary – неподвижный

11. readings – данные в таблице

12. candid photography – съемка скрытой камерой

13. handheld camera – портативный фотоаппарат

14. casual snapshot – случайный фотоснимок

15. permanently – постоянно

16. place v – располагать

17. color filter array – матрица цветовых фильтров

18. in the general vicinity – в общей близости к

19. make an accurate/educated guess – делать точную прикидку/обоснованное предположение

20. interpolation – интерполяция, вычисление промежуточных значений между двумя известными точками данных

21. pattern – схема

22. alternate v – чередовать

23. evenly – поровну

24. raw output – необработанные данные

Unfortunately, each photosite is colorblind. In order to get a full color image, most sensors use filtering to look at the light in its three primary colors. Once the camera records all three colors, it combines them to create the full spectrum.

T here are several ways of recording the three colors in a digital camera. The highest quality cameras use three separate sensors, each with a different filter. A beam splitter directs light to the different sensors. Each sensor gets an identical look at the image; but because of the filters, each sensor only responds to one of the primary colors.

The advantage of this method is that the camera records each of the three colors at each pixel location. Unfortunately, cameras that use this method tend to be bulky and expensive.

Another method is to rotate a series of red, blue and green filters in front of a single sensor. The sensor records three separate images in rapid succession. This method also provides information on all three colors at each pixel location; but since the three images aren't taken at precisely the same moment, both the camera and the target of the photo must remain stationary for all three readings. This isn't practical for candid photography or handheld cameras.

Both of these methods work well for professional studio cameras, but they're not necessarily practical for casual snapshots.

A more economical and practical way to record the primary colors is to permanently place a filter called a color filter array over each individual photosite. By breaking up the sensor into a variety of red, blue and green pixels, it is possible to get enough information in the general vicinity of each sensor to make very accurate guesses about the true color at that location. This process of looking at the other pixels in the neighborhood of a sensor and making an educated guess is called interpolation.

T he most common pattern of filters is the Bayer filter pattern. This pattern alternates a row of red and green filters with a row of blue and green filters. The pixels are not evenly divided -- there are as many green pixels as there are blue and red combined. This is because the human eye is not equally sensitive to all three colors. It's necessary to include more information from the green pixels in order to create an image that the eye will perceive as a "true color."

The advantages of this method are that only one sensor is required, and all the color information (red, green and blue) is recorded at the same moment. That means the camera can be smaller, cheaper, and useful in a wider variety of situations. The raw output from a sensor with a Bayer filter is a mosaic of red, green and blue pixels of different intensity.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. Photosights are colorblind if they are not covered with filters. T/F

2. We can create a full spectrum by combining green, yellow and red colors. T/F

3. A beam splitter is located behind the sensors. T/F

4. Cameras with beam splitters are usually rather small and handy. T/F

5. Cameras with a spinning disk filter are good for candid photography. T/F

6. The method of color filter array is based on educated guesses. T/F

7. Interpolation has nothing to do with logic T/F

8. There are more blue filters in Bayer filter pattern than there are red and green ones combined. T/F

9. The colored pixels are evenly divided in Bayer filter pattern. T/F

10. The “true color” of the object that we see is not actually true to life. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Фотоаппарат и объект должны оставаться неподвижными.

2. Сенсор регистрирует три отдельных образа в быстрой последовательности.

3. Сенсор разбивается на красные, синие и зеленые пиксели.

4. Человеческий глаз в разной степени чувствителен к трем цветам.

5. Необработанные данные от сенсора имеют форму мозаичного панно с пикселями различной интенсивности.

24 Printer technologies (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. impact adj. – ударного действия

2. dot matrix – точечная матрица

3. pin – штырек

4. ribbon – лента

5. coat v – покрыть

6. character – литера, знак

7. typewriter – печатная машинка

8. Inkjet printer – струйный принтер

9. spray v – разбрызгивать

10. toner – красящий порошок, краситель

11. bond onto … v – связать, прикрепить к

12. solid ink printer – принтер с твердым термопластичным красителем

13. wax-like – подобный воску

14. melt v – плавить(ся)

15. harden – отвердевать

16. dye-sublimation printer - принтер с термической сублимацией (возгонкой) красителя

17. roll – сверток

18. stick (stuck, stuck) together v – склеивать

19. end to end – непрерывной цепью

20. embedded – вложенный

21. cyan – голубой (один из оттенков)

22. magenta - фуксин, красная анилиновая краска, «идеальный» красный

23. dye – краска

24. evaporate v – испаряться

25. permeate v – проникать в

26. pass – проход

27. thermal wax printer - термовосковой принтер

28. CMYK (cyan-magenta-yellow-black) - палитра голубой-пурпурный-желтый-черный, используется в издательских системах. Комбинация первых трёх цветов даёт чёрный цвет, но иногда недостаточно чистый, поэтому на хороших принтерах для чёрного цвета используется отдельный картридж, а не смешивание красок

29. adhere v – прилипать

30. thermal autochrome printer – термальный автоцветный принтер

Printer technologies can be broken down into two main categories with several types in each:

Impact - These printers have a mechanism that touches the paper in order to create an image. There are two main impact technologies:

• Dot matrix printers use a series of small pins to strike a ribbon coated with ink, causing the ink to transfer to the paper at the point of impact.

• Character printers are basically computerized typewriters.

Non-impact - These printers do not touch the paper when creating an image. This group includes:

• Inkjet printers use a series of nozzles to spray drops of ink directly on the paper.

• Laser printers use dry ink (toner), static electricity, and heat to place and bond the ink onto the paper.

• Solid ink printers contain sticks of wax-like ink that are melted and applied to the paper. The ink then hardens in place.

• Dye-sublimation printers have a long roll of transparent film that resembles sheets of red-, blue-, yellow- and gray-colored cellophane stuck together end to end. Embedded in this film are solid dyes corresponding to the four basic colors used in printing: cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK). The print head uses a heating element that varies in temperature, depending on the amount of a particular color that needs to be applied. The dyes vaporize and permeate the glossy surface of the paper before they return to solid form. The printer does a complete pass over the paper for each of the basic colors, gradually building the image.

• Thermal wax printers are something of a hybrid of dye-sublimation and solid ink technologies. They use a ribbon with alternating CMYK color bands. The ribbon passes in front of a print head that has a series of tiny heated pins. The pins cause the wax to melt and adhere to the paper, where it hardens in place.

• Thermal autochrome printers have the color in the paper instead of in the printer. There are three layers (cyan, magenta and yellow) in the paper, and each layer is activated by the application of a specific amount of heat. The print head has a heating element that can vary in temperature. The print head passes over the paper three times, providing the appropriate temperature for each color layer as needed.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. In impact printers the mechanism creates an image by touching the paper. T/F

2. Dot matrix printers print with small pins coated with ink. T/F

3. Character printers transfer full sized letters, numbers and signs onto the paper. T/F

4. Inkjet printers use a nozzle to spray drops of ink in different directions. T/F

5. Toner in laser printers is liquid. T/F

6. Solid ink printers use wax and ink. T/F

7. In dye-sublimation printers dye evaporates and permeates the paper. T/F

8. Dye-sublimation printers use standard copier paper. T/F

9. Thermal wax printers have small heated pins on a print head. T/F

10. Three color layers in thermal autochrome printing paper respond to one and the same temperature of a heating element. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Маленькие иголочки ударяют по ленте, пропитанной чернилами.

2. Чернила отвердевают в нужном месте на бумаге.

3. Особый порошок, электричество и тепло используются, чтобы прилепить чернила к бумаге.

4. Нагревательный элемент в печатающей головке изменяет свою температуру.

5. В автоцветных принтерах краска находится в самой бумаге.

25 Inkjet technologies (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. droplet – капелька

2. position v – размещать, располагать

3. dpi (dots per inch) – точек на квадратный дюйм

4. currently – в настоящее время

5. thermal bubble – термальный пузырек

6. refer to v – ссылаться на

7. bubble jet (printer) – пузырьково-струйный (принтер)

8. vaporize v – испарять

9. casing – оболочка

10. heat v - нагревать

11. transducer - преобразователь

12. nozzle – сопло

13. pop v – лопаться с треском

14. fire v – выстрелить

15. simultaneously – одновременно

16. inward – вовнутрь

17. force out – вытеснять, выталкивать

18. affect v – влиять

19. absorption – впитывание, поглощение

20. rough – шероховатый

21. coarse – грубый

22. scatter v – рассеивать

23. list v – регистрировать(ся)

24. tight – плотный

25. feather v – расплываться (о краске)

26. fuzzy – смазанный

27. combat smth v – бороться с чем-либо

28. coat v – покрыть (слоем)

29. waxy – восковой

30. yield a print v – выдавать отпечаток

31. shift the paper v – сдвигать бумагу

32. blur together v - смазаться

An inkjet printer is any printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create an image. If you ever look at a piece of paper that has come out of an inkjet printer, you know that:

• The dots are extremely small (usually between 50 and 60 microns in diameter), so small that they are tinier than the diameter of a human hair (70 microns)!

• The dots are positioned very precisely, with resolutions of up to 1440x720 dots per inch (dpi).

• The dots can have different colors combined together to create photo-quality images.

D ifferent types of inkjet printers form their droplets of ink in different ways. There are two main inkjet technologies currently used by printer manufacturers:

• T hermal bubble - Used by manufacturers such as Canon and Hewlett Packard, this method is commonly referred to as bubble jet. In a thermal inkjet printer, tiny resistors create heat, and this heat vaporizes ink to create a bubble. As the bubble expands, some of the ink is pushed out of a nozzle onto the paper. When the bubble "pops", a vacuum is created. This pulls more ink into the print head from the cartridge. A typical bubble jet print head has 300 or 600 tiny nozzles, and all of them can fire a droplet simultaneously.

• Piezoelectric - Patented by Epson, this technology uses piezo crystals. A crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir of each nozzle. The crystal receives a tiny electric charge that causes it to vibrate. When the crystal vibrates inward, it forces a tiny amount of ink out of the nozzle. When it vibrates out, it pulls some more ink into the reservoir to replace the ink sprayed out.

There are two main factors that affect image quality: Brightness and Absorption.

The brightness of a paper is normally determined by how rough the surface of the paper is. A coarse or rough paper will scatter light in several directions, whereas a smooth paper will reflect more of the light back in the same direction. This makes the paper appear brighter, which in turn makes any image on the paper appear brighter. You can see this yourself by comparing a photo in a newspaper with a photo in a magazine. The smooth paper of the magazine page reflects light back to your eye much better than the rough texture of the newspaper. Any paper that is listed as being bright is generally a smoother-than-normal paper.

The other key factor in image quality is absorption. When the ink is sprayed onto the paper, it should stay in a tight, symmetrical dot. The ink should not be absorbed too much into the paper. If that happens, the dot will begin to feather. The result is that a page looks somewhat fuzzy, particularly at the edges of objects and text.

To combat feathering, high-quality inkjet paper is coated with a waxy film that keeps the ink on the surface of the paper. Coated paper normally yields a dramatically better print than other paper. The low absorption of coated paper is key to the high resolution capabilities of many of today's inkjet printers. For example, a typical Epson inkjet printer can print at a resolution of up to 720x720 dpi on standard paper. With coated paper, the resolution increases to 1440x720 dpi. The reason is that the printer can actually shift the paper slightly and add a second row of dots for every normal row, knowing that the image will not feather and cause the dots to blur together.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. Inkjet printer is any printer that uses ink. T/F

2. Inkjet printers can create photo-quality images. T/F

3. In a thermal inkjet printer, tiny transistors create heat. T/F

4. The bubble is formed by vaporized ink. T/F

5. Expanding bubble creates vacuum that pulls in more ink. T/F

6. In piezoelectric jets vibration of a transducer forces ink out of a nozzle. T/F

7. Brightness of the paper is determined by its roughness. T/F

8. A photo in a newspaper is often brighter than the photo in a magazine. T/F

9. The ink sprayed onto the paper doesn’t always stay in a symmetrical dot. T/F

10. A waxy film helps keep the ink inside the sheet of paper. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Кристалл получает электрический заряд, вызывающий его вибрацию.

2. Шероховатая бумага рассеивает свет.

3. Бумага, регистрируемая как «яркая белая» (супер-белая), обычно более гладкая, чем нормальная.

4. Чернила не должны проникать в бумагу слишком глубоко.

5. Бумага с покрытием дает значительно лучшее качество отпечатка.

26 A Hierarchy of Networks. Routers. Backbones (after Jeff Tyson)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. ISP (Internet Service Provider) - поставщик услуг сети Интернет

2. LAN (Local Area Network) – локальная сеть

3. contract with smb. v – заключить договор с кем-либо

4. backbone – магистральный кабель

5. dedicated – выделенный

6. POP (Point Of Presence) -), точка присутствия (в глобальной сети), представляет собой один или несколько маршрутизаторов, соединённых линиями связи с маршрутизаторами других сетей

7. overall controlling network – централизованная контролирующая сеть

8. high-level network – высокоуровневая сеть

9. NAPs (Network Access Points) - точки доступа к сети, позволяют объединять сети провайдеров Internet

10. divide - разрыв

11. bridge v – сопрягать, соединять (сети с возможно разнотипными средами передачи, например, витые пары и оптоволокно, скоростями и иногда даже протоколами)

12. router – маршрутизатор

13. pathway – путь, направление

14. crucial – важный, решающий

15. clog v – засорять, забивать

16. intended destination – планируемый пункт назначения

17. traffic - трафик; поток данных в передающей среде

18. spill over v – перетекать, распространяться

19. regardless (of) – независимо от, невзирая на

20. NSF (National Science Foundation) - Национальный научный фонд (США)

21. trunk line – магистральная линия связи

22. OC (Optical Carrier) - оптическая несущая. Цифра кратна частоте базового сигнала в сетях SONET, равной 51,84 Мбит/с

23. high-capacity – мощный, многопарный

24. sprawling - расползающийся

E very computer that is connected to the Internet is part of a network. For example, you may use a modem and dial a local number to connect to an Internet Service Provider (ISP). At work, you may be part of a local area network (LAN), but you most likely still connect to the Internet using an ISP that your company has contracted with. When you connect to your ISP, you become part of their network. The ISP may then connect to a larger network and become part of their network. The Internet is simply a network of networks.

M ost large communications companies have their own dedicated backbones connecting various regions. In each region, the company has a Point of Presence (POP). The POP is a place for local users to access the company's network, often through a local phone number or dedicated line. The amazing thing here is that there is no overall controlling network. Instead, there are several high-level networks connecting to each other through Network Access Points or NAPs.

The divide between separate networks is bridged by NAPs, backbones and routers.

The routers determine where to send information from one computer to another. Routers are specialized computers that send your messages and those of every other Internet user to their destinations along thousands of pathways. A router has two separate, but related, jobs:

• It ensures that information doesn't go where it's not needed. This is crucial for keeping large volumes of data from clogging the connections of "innocent bystanders."

• It makes sure that information does make it to the intended destination.

In performing these two jobs, a router is extremely useful in dealing with two separate computer networks. It joins the two networks, passing information from one to the other. It also protects the networks from one another, preventing the traffic on one from unnecessarily spilling over to the other. Regardless of how many networks are attached, the basic operation and function of the router remains the same. Since the Internet is one huge network made up of tens of thousands of smaller networks, its use of routers is an absolute necessity.

Backbones The National Science Foundation (NSF) created the first high-speed backbone in 1987. Called NSFNET, it was a T1 line that connected 170 smaller networks together and operated at 1.544 Mbps (million bits per second). IBM, MCI and Merit worked with NSF to create the backbone and developed a T3 (45 Mbps) backbone the following year.

Backbones are typically fiber optic trunk lines. The trunk line has multiple fiber optic cables combined together to increase the capacity. Fiber optic cables are designated OC for optical carrier, such as OC-3, OC-12 or OC-48. An OC-3 line is capable of transmitting 155 Mbps while an OC-48 can transmit 2,488 Mbps (2.488 Gbps). Compare that to a typical 56K modem transmitting 56,000 bps and you see just how fast a modern backbone is.

Today there are many companies that operate their own high-capacity backbones, and all of them interconnect at various NAPs around the world. In this way, everyone on the Internet, no matter where they are and what company they use, is able to talk to everyone else on the planet. The entire Internet is a gigantic, sprawling agreement between companies to intercommunicate freely.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. You don’t need a modem to connect to Internet if you are part of a LAN. T/F

2. Large communication companies always lease dedicated backbones from ISPs. T/F

3. Only dedicated lines may become POPs. T/F

4. There is an overall controlling network inside Internet. T/F

5. Routers help bridge the divide between separate networks. T/F

6. Messages are always sent to their destinations along the same pathways. T/F

7. Routers have to measure the volumes of information passing “to” and “from”. T/F

8. Basic functions of routers change depending on the number of networks they connect. T/F

9. T-1 has a higher capacity than T-3. T/F

10. Trunk lines are composed of smaller fiber-optic cables. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Маршрутизатор соединяет две сети, передавая данные от одной к другой.

2. Линия Т-1 работает на скорости 1,5 Мегабит в секунду.

3. Магистральные линии связи обычно являются оптико-волоконными.

4. Многие большие компании имеют свои собственные мощные линии связи.

5. Интернет это гигантское соглашение о свободном обмене информацией.

27 CD Encoding Issues (after Marshal Brain)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. issue – проблема

2. CD-R drive – дисковод для записи лазерных дисков

3. things going in your favor – обстоятельства в вашу пользу

4. handle the details v – управиться с деталями

5. picture v – представлять себе, воображать

6. pits and bumps – ямки и бугорки

7. track the spiral v – следовать по спирали

8. 0-1transition – переход от бугорка к ямке

9. EFM (eight-fourteen modulation) - преобразование первичного 8-разрядного кода в 14-разрядный для снижения плотности ямок на оптическом диске и повышения уровня помехоустойчивости

10. convert v – преобразовывать

11. zero – нуль, бугорок на оптическом диске

12. digital 10 – числовое (выражение) 10

13. subcode – субкод, внутренний код

14. relative position – относительное положение

15. misread v – неправильно прочесть

16. single-bit error – ошибка в одном разряде (кода)

17. parity bit – бит четности (для проверки правильности передачи данных)

18. scratch – царапина

19. speck – пятно

20. burst error – пакетная ошибка

21. interleaving – расслоение, чередование

22. non-sequentially – непоследовательно

23. revolution – вращение (диска)

24. un-interleave v – расставлять в правильной очередности

25. fuzz – небольшие помехи

If you have a CD-R drive, and want to produce your own audio CDs or CD-ROMs, one of the great things you've got going in your favor is the fact that software can handle all the details for you. You can say to your software, "Please store these songs on this CD," or "Please store these data files on this CD-ROM," and the software will do the rest. Because of this, you don't need to know anything about CD data formatting to create your own CDs. However, CD data formatting is complex and interesting.

Typically, a user pictures the "1s" and "0s" in the memory of the computer as being directly transferred to "pits" and "bumps" on the CD disk. Unfortunately, it is far from that easy. There are different conditions the designers of the data encoding methodology are trying to handle. Here is a fairly complete list:

• Because the laser is tracking the spiral of data using the bumps, there will be less reading mistakes if the number of 0 to 1 and 1-0 transitions is minimized. Small pits must be avoided. To solve this problem, data is encoded using EFM (eight-fourteen modulation). In EFM, 8-bit bytes are converted to 14 bits. In EFM only those combinations of bits are used in which more than two but less than 10 zeros appear continuously. For example, a digital 10 given as a binary 0000 1010 is an EFM 1001 0001 0000 00.

• Because the laser wants to be able to move between songs, data needs to be encoded into the music telling the drive "where it is" on the disc. This problem is solved using what is known as subcode data. Subcode data can encode the absolute and relative position of the laser in the track, and can also encode such things as song titles.

• Because the laser may misread a bump, there need to be error-correcting codes to handle single-bit errors. To solve this problem, extra data bits or parity bits are added that allow the drive to detect single-bit errors and correct them.

• Because a scratch or a speck on the CD might cause a whole packet of bytes to be misread (known as a burst error), the drive needs to be able to recover from such an event. This problem is solved by actually interleaving the data on the disc, so that it is stored non-sequentially around one of the disc's circuits The drive actually reads data one revolution at a time, and un-interleaves the data in order to play it.

• If a few bytes are misread in music, the worst thing that can happen is a little fuzz during playback. When data is stored on a CD, however, any data error is catastrophic. Therefore, additional error correction codes are used when storing data on a CD-ROM.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. You can produce your own audio CDs and CD-ROMs on any CD-drive. T/F

2. "1s" and "0s" in the memory of the computer as directly transferred to "pits" and "bumps" on the CD disk. T/F

3. Laser is tracking only “bumps” on the optical disc. T/F

4. Using EFM-modulation leads to having more “bumps” than “pits” on a disc. T/F

5. Pauses between the songs on a disc have nothing to do with sub-code data. T/F

6. Laser can never misread a bump. T/F

7. Parity bits are part of 8-14 modulation. T/F

8. Parity bits help detect an error, but they can’t help correct it – what’s done cannot be undone. T/F

9. “Interleaving” is synonymous to “mixing”. T/F

10. The CD drive reads the recorded data continuously and without interruption. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. При EFM-модуляции число n последовательно следующих нулевых бит может принимать значение 2 ≤ n ≤ 10.

2. Субкод несет информацию об относительном и абсолютном положении лазера на дорожке.

3. Коды коррекции ошибок призваны исправлять одноразрядные ошибки.

4. Царапина способна вызвать пакетную ошибку.

5. Ошибка в записи данных на диск может иметь катастрофические последствия.

28 Encoding data on optical discs: Binary parity checks. Interleaving. Interpolation (after Prof. Kelin J. Kuhn)

Ex. 1. Study the active vocabulary

1. parity check – контроль четности

2. odd / even – нечетный / четный

3. consider v – рассмотреть

4. agree v – согласовываться

5. transmit v – передавать

6. interleaving – расслоение, чередование

7. frame – блок информации

8. character – символ

9. spit v – плюнуть, брызнуть слюной

10. reconstruct v – реконструировать

11. interpolate v – интерполировать, отыскать промежуточные значения величины по некоторым известным ее значениям

12. scramble v - перемешать

13. uncorrectable error – неисправимая ошибка

14. average – среднее число

15. valid data – достоверные данные

16. erroneous data – данные с ошибками

17. muting – шумоподавление

18. last ditch technique – прием, применяемый как крайнее средство

19. audio train – звукоряд

20. volume – уровень громкости

21. be faded out v – постепенно уменьшать(ся), затухать (о звуке)

22. be back in v – постепенно увеличиваться до прежнего уровня

In a simple binary parity check, a parity bit is a single bit that represents whether the total number of "1s" in a particular data stream is odd (1) or even (0). For example, assume that you are setting a parity bit over all the digits of the following word

1101 0000.

The total number of "1s" is odd, so the parity bit would be 1. The word might then be written as 1101 0000 1 where the last digit is the parity bit. If enough parity bits are used, then errors can not only be detected -- they can also be corrected.

For example, consider what happens if you use four parity bits. The first one is on the first four bits, the second one is on the second four bits, the third one is on the 1,2,5,6 bits and the fourth one is on the 2,3,6,7 bits.

1	1	0	1	0	0	0	0	P1	P2	P3	P4
x	x	x	x					1
				x	x	x	x		0
x	x			x	x					0
	x	x			x	x					1

Now, assume that there was an error in the final bit.

1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	P1	P2	P3	P4
1	1	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	1
x	x	x	x					1
				x	x	x	x		1
x	x			x	x					0
	x	x			x	x					1

Parity bit P1 would agree with the parity bit in the transmitted word, P2 would NOT agree, P3 and P4 would agree. Since P2 is the only parity bit not agreeing with the transmitted word -- then the error must be in the 8th bit.

Unfortunately, the majority of error-detection and correction algorithms used in CD players are not as simple as the binary check code discussed above.

Simple interleaving: Interleaving is a very simple and powerful idea. To illustrate interleaving, assume that you have a frame consisting of several characters of information,

U N I V E R S I T Y O F W A S H I N G T O N

Assume that you spit on the disk and destroy several of the characters.

R S I T Y O F W A S H I N G T O N

The first word is then very hard to reconstruct! However, you can take the original frame and scramble it as,

U N I V E R S I T Y O F W A S H I N G T O N

O N S T H U G R F S I I O T W N N v E I Y A

Then you can damage it,

U G R F S I I O T W N N V E I Y A

Then you can unscramble it,

U N I V E R I Y O F W A S I G T N

It is much easier to "interpolate" or "guess" the missing letters.

Concealment: In practice some errors are so large that they cannot be corrected by the error-detection and correction algorithms. Unless these errors are handled by some other means, they can result in audible clicks in the audio output. In order to avoid these clicks, several methods are used to conceal uncorrectable errors:

Interpolation: In this technique, some average is constructed using the valid data around an error. This average is then substituted in for the erroneous data. Since most music (with the possible exception of heavy metal!) is continuous -- this method works well for concealing relatively short errors.

Muting: Muting is a last ditch technique -- as it effectively creates a brief period of silence in the audio train. However, it is not effective to simply set all the binary digits to zero --as this produces exactly the click that we are trying to avoid! Instead, the volume is faded out and then back in again to conceal the error.

In theory, the combination of parity and interleaving in a CD player can detect and correct a burst error of up to 4000 bad bits -- or a physical defect 2.47 mm long. Interpolation can conceal errors up to 13,700 or physical defects up to 8.5 mm long.

Ex. 2. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

1. Parity bits in parity checks may represent either odd or even total numbers. T/F

2. Data errors may be corrected by a parity check based on one parity bit. T/F

3. Error-correction algorithms used in CD players are quite simple. T/F

4. It’s easier to guess the missing letters in a damaged frame if it was interleaved. T/F

5. Uncorrectable errors cannot be concealed. T/F

6. Valid data areas before and after the error help reconstruct the damaged frame. T/F

7. Music in the genre of heavy metal is usually continuous. T/F

8. Muting is used when nothing else helps. T/F

9. Setting all digits to zero will mute the music volume. T/F

10. Interpolation can correct larger defects than parity and interleaving combined. T/F

Ex. 3. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Некоторые ошибки так велики, что не могут быть исправлены алгоритмами.

2. Ошибки могут проявиться в слышимых щелчках при воспроизведении.

3. Усредненные данные подставляются вместо ошибочных.

4. Уровень громкости постепенно снижется, а затем постепенно увеличивается.

5. Пакетная ошибка величиной до 4000 бит может быть исправлена комбинацией контроля четности с чередованием.

Table of Contents

№	Title	Page
BASIC VOCABULARY		3
1	The computer	4
2	The desktop	5
3	Using a word processor	5
4	Word processing: for and against	6
5	Storing data	6
6	Creating a folder	7
7	Saving files	8
8	The Internet	9
9	Research on the Internet	10
10	E-mail, telephones and the post	10
11	Mobile phones	11
12	Writing e-mails	12
13	E-mail addresses and servers	13
14	Sending files over the Internet	14
15	Viewing and downloading files	15
16	Music on the Internet	15
17	Desktop publishing (DTP)	16
18	Image editing	17
19	Reviewing websites	18
20	Designing Web pages	19
21	Multimedia	20
22	E-commerce	20
23	Chat rooms	21
24	Netiquette	22
25	Computer programming	22
26	Videoconferencing	24
27	Men, women and IT	25
28	Careers in IT	25
	Glossary revision	26
ADITIONAL TEXTS AND VOCABULARY
1 TEXT	What is the difference between DVD-R/DVD-RW, DVD+R/DVD+RW and DVD-RAM discs?	30
2	The Real E-mail System	32
3	POP3 and IMAP Servers	35
4	File Compression: Finding redundancy and looking for patterns	36
5	File Compression: The file-reduction ratio. Lossy and Lossless	37
6	AGP graphics card: Getting Off the Bus	41
7	AGP graphics card: Saving RAM	43
8	3-D Graphics: Making It Look Like the Real Thing by Shapes, Surface Textures, Lighting.	44
9	3-D Graphics: Making It Look Like the Real Thing by Perspective, Depth of Field and Anti-aliasing	47
10	The future of PC: EUVL Chipmaking	49
11	The future of PC: DNA and Quantum	51
12	What BIOS Does	53
13	Storing Data on a DVD	55
14	Keyboard Technologies	57
15	Types of Infection: E-mail viruses	59
16	Flash Basics	61
17	Removable Flash Memory Cards	63
18	How Telephones Work	65
19	The Telephone Network: Wires and Cables. Digitizing and Delivering	67
20	Calling Someone by Phone. Tones	69
21	How Digital Cameras Work: CMOS and CCD sensors	71
22	How Digital Cameras Work: Resolution	73
23	How Digital Cameras Work: Capturing Color	74
24	Printer technologies	76
25	Inkjet technologies	78
26	A Hierarchy of Networks. Routers. Backbones	80
27	CD Encoding Issues	82
28	Encoding data on optical discs: Binary parity checks. Interleaving. Interpolation	84
	Список использованной литературы	88

Список использованной литературы:

1. Dinos Demetriades Information technology:Workshop.- Oxford, Oxford UP. 2003. - 40 p.

2. http://www.howstuffworks.com; http://www.computer.howstuffworks.com, etc.

3. Пройдаков Э.М., Теплицкий Л.А. Англо-русский толковый словарь по вычислительной технике, Интернету и программированию- М.: Издательско-торговый дом «Русская редакция», 2003.- 640 с.

4. ABBY Lingvo 10. Многоязычный электронный словарь. Выпуск 10.0.0.13. Copyrigh 2004 ABBYY Software Ltd.