(1) Are brand names being pushed off the shelf?

BRANDS are insubstantial things, mere symbols, names, associations. Sometimes they signal real differences between products. Sometimes they are pure illusion. Either way, brands are akin to a product's or company's reputation and they influence consumers' perceptions. The wearer of a Rolex watch is concerned with more than keeping time; the BMW driver with more than getting from place to place. Brands add value by making customers loyal and, often, willing to pay more for the things branded. Roses by another name might smell as sweet, but they would no longer fetch $30 a dozen.

Despite the evidence of the value of brands, creating and sustaining that capital are often neglected by consumer-goods com­panies. Under pressure to make big short-run gains in sales, many brand managers are cavalier about the long-term commercial health of their products. Increasingly they are abandoning brand-building activities, such as advertising, in favour of tactics, especially price promotions, which aim to increase market share quickly. In 1980 promotions accounted for about a third of all spending on marketing, with advertising taking up the rest. Now, remarkably, the proportions have reversed.

A forthcoming book by David Aaker, a marketing professor at the University of California at Berkeley, tries to cure brand managers of this myopia. Often, Mr Aaker argues, managers are not sufficiently aware of the damage that short-term thinking can do to good brands. A marketing plan centred on discounts and promotions, along with corner-cutting on quality, caused Schlitz, an American lager, to lose its position as a premium beer. In just five years, Schlitz went from $48m in net profits to $S0m in losses.

Rarely can rivals inflict such severe damage. To launch a new consumer product in America can cost $75m-100m; even then, most fail. At the same time, old favourites become virtually invulnerable. In 19 of 22 standard product categories, today's leading brand was also on top in 1925. In the category

of food blenders, consumers were still ranking General Electric second — 20 years after the company had stopped making them.

The failure of challengers to overcome the resilience of familiar names has led to

another tactic also prone to short-termism: brand-stretching. In their eagerness to extend a popular brand's recognition and reputation to a new type of product, says Mr Aaker, managers often overlook basic problems with the "fit" between the old¹ name and the new item. Levi Strauss's attempt to stretch itself to cover a line of smart suits failed dismally. Worse, it hurt the core brand it took a snappy advertising campaign to get Levi's jeans business back on track.

More perilous still are attempts to milk additional sales from premium brands by

taking them downmarket. Cadillac's reputation has still not recovered from its effort to attract lower-income car buyers with its cheaper Cimarron model in the early 1980s. Diluting Cadillac's snob appeal put off image-conscious buyers who might normally have been keen on the car. Undisciplined use of the Gucci name almost brought the company to ruin; at one point there were some 14,000 different Gucci products.

Part of the problem is that the organisation of most consumer-goods companies favours short time horizons. Brand managers at firms such as Unilever and Philip Morris usually stay in their jobs for just a year or two. Brand oversight by top management is generally ad hoc.

One solution suggested by Mr Aaker is for companies to hire or appoint people

solely to monitor the status of brands. These

"brand-equity managers" would be charged with taking a—long view on guarding products' images, name associations and perceived quality. They would have the final ray over marketing plans and the decisions of ordinary brand managers. Such a system is being tried at Colgate-Palmolive, and Canada Dry.

But unless the incentive structure within the consumer-goods companies is

changed, "brand-equity" managers will provide little more than another layer of bureaucracy. As Mr Aaker points out, the main reason for brand-related short-termism is shareholders' expectations of sparkling quarterly earnings. Because brand equity is hard to put a price on, punters must use returns as a guide to future performance. This is the source of pressure on brand managers to turn to promotions to boost sales.

Price promotions can have a dramatic short-term effect on a brand's sales, especially for some sorts of good. For fruit drinks, increases of more than 400% during the first week of a promotion are common. But a new study by the London Business School shows that such promotions have no lasting effect on sales or brand loyalty. Some consumers switch temporarily to the promoted brand, but once the promotion ends, almost all of them go back to the one they normally prefer.

Promotions that merely offer a discount or a rebate can cheapen a brand's image. Since price is often a signal to consumers of a product's quality (witness luxury drinks like Chivas Regal), a brand that is always on special offer loses its appeal. Better, says Mr Aaker, to try promotions that reinforce the brand's image, such as American Express's leather luggage tags, or increase brand awareness, such as Pillsbury's baking contests.

Similarly, thoughtful brand-stretching can not only help a new product break into a crowded market but can also enhance the core brand's value. Frozen-juice bars and vitamin-C tablets have reinforced Sunkist's orange-tinted image of good health. But even a good "fit" has limits. Despite the association of a fruit-processor like Dole with all things tropical, Mr Aaker says the company would be stretching things too far if it opened a tropical-travel service. His advice to brand managers echoes the words of David Ogilvy, a legendary adman: "The consumer is no moron; she is your wife."

© The Economist