Exploratory task 1.7 Give the definitions to the following categories of errors illustrated with the examples

Category of error	Definitions	Example
Omissions Redundancy Misuse Misorderings		She sleeping We did not went there The dog ated the chicken What daddy is doing?

Input reading 2

Individual differences in language learning

Individual differences depend in learner age, motivation, language aptitude and cognitive style. Learner age is always taken into consideration. E.g. adults are prone to language analysis and are more concentrated in their studies. They can exert significant effort in achieving the goal that they have in mind. Young learners will benefit more from flexibility of input and teaching activities. Their motor memory (active use of the language in games and physical activities) pays them a good service. Young learners prefer concrete operations with the language, performing “here-and-now” activities, doing “hands-on” tasks, participating in the task with affective involvement, doing “context-embedded” exercises. Young learners do what they like, hear and repeat, listen and act, play and do, perform and say/sing. Adults benefit from their general memory and background knowledge, well structured input and activities. They prefer to rely on a system of rules and concepts and value linguistic awareness as well as linguistic accuracy (Hammerly H. 1982. Synthesis In Second Language Teaching. Second Language Publications)

Exploratory task 2.1 Match the learner age and the attitudes to teaching

Attitudes to teaching	Learner age
Like stories with pictures Enjoy activities with a challenging task Like the teacher to be in control Like the teacher to enter their private territory Prefer efforts to fun Like to conform to teacher demands Take responsibilities Expect seller-buyer relationship Resource-user relationship	A/ Young learners B/ Teenagers C/ Adults

(Attitudes to teaching are adapted from Ur. P. 1996. A Course in Language Teaching. CUP. P. 286-296)

Warming-up discussion 2.1

Discuss in your group the following statements and mark them as true (T), false (F), or debatable (D).

Statements	T F D
Motivation in language learning is more important than language aptitude
Motivation for learning is impossible without learner’s success
Silent learner is never motivated to learn English for communication
Motivation for foreign language learning is independent from the interest in the target culture
Attaining a goal is a motivating factor for language learning
Interesting activity is the way to motivate the learners extrinsically
Offering a reward is the way to motivate the learners intrinsically

The process of learning is driven by motivation. Motives are the personal reasons for behaviour, which are usually rooted in the human needs and act as the driving force for the activity (Roth, I. 1994. (Ed.) Introduction to Psychology. The Open University. Volume 1. P. 4). Motivation is evident in how a person is setting the goals, sustaining attention during the activity, invests efforts and persistence, perseveres and attains (Williams, M. and R. Burden. 1997. Psychology for Language Teachers. CUP. P. 121-122). Usually a person is motivated to get the knowledge if one feels secure in class, if this knowledge makes them closer to the class-mates (often learners are unwilling to demonstrate their knowledge as they are afraid of becoming the butt of bullying), if the knowledge helps them self-actualise their personality potential. Motivation hierarchy is shown by the graph (Maslow cited in Roth, I. 1994. (Ed.) Introduction to Psychology. The Open University. Volume 1. P. 436. Brown, H. 1994. Teaching by Principles. .NJ P. 112). Motivation can have an effect on learning (causative motivation) and be influenced by the learning results (resultative motivation). It can be derived from the personal needs and interests (intrinsic motivation) and depends on the external sources such as a reward or fear of punishment (extrinsic motivation). Motivation can be enhanced by an attitude to the subject and general positive orientation towards the target language culture (integrative motivation). Motivation can arise from practical considerations (instrumental motivation) (Gardner, R. and W.Lambert. 1972. Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning. Newbury House. Massachusetts)