Задание для дизайнеров – дополнительное для всех вариантов

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Architecture the art of building in which human requirements and construction materials are related so as to furnish practical use as well as an aesthetic solution, thus differing from the pure utility of engineering construction. As an art, architecture is essentially abstract and nonrepresentational and involves the manipulation of the relationships of spaces, volumes, planes, masses, and voids. Time is also an important factor in architecture, since a building is usually comprehended in a succession of experiences rather than all at once. In most architecture there is no one vantage point from which the whole structure can be understood. The use of light and shadow, as well as surface decoration, can greatly enhance a structure.

The analysis of building types provides an insight into past cultures and eras. Behind each of the greater styles lies not a casual trend nor a vogue, but a period of serious and urgent experimentation directed toward answering the needs of a specific way of life. Climate, methods of labor, available materials, and economy of means all impose their dictates. Each of the greater styles has been aided by the discovery of new construction methods. Once developed, a method survives tenaciously, giving way only when social changes or new building techniques have reduced it. That evolutionary process is exemplified by the history of modern architecture, which developed from the first uses of structural iron and steel in the mid-19th cent.

Until the 20th cent. there were three great developments in architectural construction—the post-and-lintel system; the arch system, either the cohesive type, employing plastic materials hardening into a homogeneous mass, or the thrust type, in which the loads are received and counterbalanced at definite points; and the modern steel-skeleton system. In the 20th cent. new forms of building have been devised, with the use of reinforced concrete and the development of geodesic and stressed-skin (light material, reinforced) structures.

New World, New Architectures

The architects of the later 19th century, found themselves in a world being reshaped by science, industry, and speed. A new eclecticism arose, such as the architecture based on the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and what is commonly called Victorian architecture in Britain and the United States. The needs of a new society pressed them, while steel, reinforced concrete, and electricity were among the many new technical means at their disposal.

After more than a half-century of assimilation and experimentation, modern architecture, often called the International style, produced an astonishing variety of daring and original buildings, often steel substructures sheathed in glass. The Bauhaus was a strong influence on modern architecture. As the line between architecture and engineering became a shadow, 20th-century architecture often approached engineering, and modern works of engineering—airplane hangars, for example—often aimed at and achieved an undeniable beauty. More recently, postmodern architecture (see postmodernism), which exploits and expands the technical innovations of modernism while often incorporating stylistic elements from other architectural styles or periods, has become an international movement.

Vocabulary

1. the binomial theorem [bai'noumjal] — бином Ньютона

2. plague [pleig] — чума

3. matter = substance — вещество

4. inversely proportional — обратно пропорциональный

5. the force of gravity ['graeviti] — сила притяжения

gravitation — притяжение

6. an apprentice [a'prentis] — ученик, подмастерье

7. bookbinder's shop — переплетная мастерская

8. the Royal Society [sa'saiati] — Королевское научное общество

9. lightning ['laitnin] rod — громоотвод

10. diesel engine — дизельный двигатель

11. petrol engine ['petral] — бензиновый двигатель

12. petrol tank — бензобак

13. petrol pump — бензиновый насос

14. 2-stroke (4-stroke) engine — двухтактный (четырехтактный) двигатель

15. vehicle [vi:kl] — экипаж, повозка, автомобиль

16. block — узел, блок

17. valve — клапан

18. carburettor — карбюратор

19. positive terminal — положительная клемма

20. carbon rod — угольный стержень

21. chemical paste [kemikal 'peist] — химическая (активная) масса

22. steam pressure — давление пара

23. charge — заряд