7. Environmental Assessment. Basic principles of the environmental impact assessment.

Environmental Assessment. Basic principles of the environmental impact assessment.

Another function of the state management in the field of ecology is to conduct environmental impact assessment. In the existing legislation organization and legal regulation of environmental impact assessment is highlighted in the chapter 11 of the Law "On Environmental Protection" (now Ecological Code), and 18 March 1997 adopted the Law "On Environmental Assessment".

This law regulates social relations in the field of environmental assessment in order to prevent the negative impact of administrative, economic and other activities on the environment, life and health of the population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In this Law the environmental assessment is defined as a confirmation that the planned economic and other activities correspond to environmental requirements and determination of the admissibility of the object to implement environmental assessment in order to prevent possible adverse impact of

the activity on the environment and associated social, economic and other consequences of the

implementation of the object of environmental examination. Basic principles of environmental impact assessment:

• presumption of potential environmental danger of any economic or other activities;

• mandatory of state environmental assessment before making decisions on the

implementation of the object of environmental expertise;

• the complexity of assessing the impact of economic and other activities on the

environment;

• independent experts of environmental expertise in carrying out their responsibilities;

• scientific validity, objectivity and legitimacy of the conclusions of environmental impact

assessment;

• transparency, participation of public organizations (associations), responsiveness to public

opinion;

• responsibility of parties for environmental impact assessment for its quality.

8. The Law of the RK "On Ecological Assessment". Two types of environmental impact assessment

The RK Law "On Environmental Assessment" gives them the following rights:

• create eco-expert commissions and groups and other groups, to involve qualified local and

foreign experts and scholars, legal entities on a contractual basis;

• oversee the work of expert units;

• lead the advice of environmental expertise, organize their activities;

• Identify methods of examination;

• sign an ecological expertise;

• request additional materials needed for the examination;

• reject given the environmental review materials that do not meet the necessary standards

and regulations;

• other powers in accordance with the law.

The RK Law "On Environmental Assessment" defines 2 types of environmental impact

assessment:

1. State environmental assessment - view of the central executive body of the Republic of

Kazakhstan in the sphere of environmental protection and its field offices.

2. Public environmental assessment - an activity undertaken on a voluntary basis by expert

commissions established at the initiative of individual groups, associations and research

organizations for the environmental assessment of any activity. It can operate independently of the

holding for the same projects of the state ecological expertise.

9. Highly toxic substances (HTS). Application of HTS. Effects of HTS. Highly toxic substances (HTS) - are chemical substances that are intended for use in the economy and have a toxicity that can cause massive destruction of people, animals and plants. At several sites of the national economy the production, use, storage and transportation of HTS takes place. Violation of technology of their production, storage and transportation, lack of discipline among staff are responsible for the creation of emergencies, disasters, leading to tragic consequences. Accidents with pollution may occur as a result of destruction of the economic facilities in the wartime or acts of sabotage, to the same results could lead earthquakes, floods, landslides, fires, and other natural disasters. When poured out (emissions) HTS form lesions. A lesion of HTS is called an area, within which there were massive destruction people, farm animals and plants by HTS. Moreover, during the hostilities or natural disasters occurring at the site of manufacture, use or transporting of HTS, the probability of these lesions is greatly increased. They are usually divided into areas of direct pouring out (discharge) of HTS, and zones of localization of their vapors. An important feature of the lesions formed by the HTS is the duration of the presence of areas of direct pouring out (discharge) of substances, ie persistence of infection. Most of the HTS having a boiling point up to 20 C (chlorine, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia) tend to evaporate quickly, so the resistance of infection in areas where they are pouring out (discharge) is small. However, vapor of such substances, including hazardous concentrations can be detected at large distances (up to several kilometers) from where they were poured out (discharged). Zone of infection is called sites contaminated with highly toxic substances. The destructive effect of HTS appears as a result of entering onto human skin as well as by inhalation of vapors. ffect of HTS on human health Acute intoxication occurs, as a rule, suddenly after a brief exposure to relatively high concentrations of venom and is expressed more or less severe and specific clinical symptoms. In production conditions acute poisonings are most commonly associated with the accident, malfunction of equipment or with the introduction in technology of new materials with little-known toxicity. Chronic intoxication caused by the intake of small amounts of venom and associated with the development of pathological phenomena only under condition of the long-term exposure, sometimes by several years.

10. Lesions. Classification based on the degree of human exposure to HTS. Chemical harmful factors on the nature of their affect on human organism are divided into the following subgroups: general toxic, irritating, sensitizing (causing allergies), carcinogenic (causing the development of tumors), mutagenic (acting on germ cells of the body).

This group includes many fumes and gases: fumes of benzene and toluene, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, aerosols of lead, etc., toxic dusts produced, for instance, when cutting beryllium, lead bronze and brass and some plastics with harmful fillers.

This group includes aggressive liquids (acids, alkalis), which can cause chemical burns of the skin in contact with them. The exposure levels of workers to harmful factors are normalized by the maximum permissible level, whose values are specified in the appropriate standards of safety standards and sanitary rules.

Harmful substance (industrial poison), entering the human body during his professional activities, causes pathological changes.

The main sources of air pollution of industrial premises by harmful substances can be raw materials, components and finished products. Diseases arising from the impact of these substances are called occupational poisoning (intoxication).

11. Effect of contaminants on human health (acute and chronic intoxication). Prevention of occupational poisoning 12. Characteristics of hazardous substances used in production (ammonia, chlorine etc.). Actions in case of accidents. Ammonia: MAIN PROPERTIES: Colorless gas with a sharp suffocating odor, the boiling point of -33.4 C, vapor is lighter than air, explosive when mixed with oxygen. Ammonia is unstable, high-speed. Infected cloud is distributed in the upper atmosphere.FIRST AID MEASURES: First aid in the focus of the lesion, carried out in order of self-and mutual-aid: Wash eyes and face with water, wear a mask or cotton-gauze bandage moistened with a 5% solution of citric acid, and wash exposed skin with water, immediately leave the center of contamination

CHLORINE: KEY FEATURES: Greenish-yellow gas with a sharp odor, the boiling point of 34.1 C, vapor is heavier than air. FIRST AID MEASURES: First aid in the focus of the lesion, carried out in order of self-and mutual-aid: Rinse face with water, wear a mask or cotton-gauze bandage soaked in 2% solution of baked soda, wash exposed skip with water and soup, immediately leave the center of contamination.

Hydrochloric acid: KEY FEATURES: A colorless liquid with a sharp odor. It is easy to evaporate and smokes in the air. Is readily soluble in water. Corrosion for most metals. Boiling point 110 C, vapor is heavier than air. FIRST AID MEASURES: First aid in the focus of the lesion, carried out in order of self-and mutual-aid: Rinse face with water, wear a mask or cotton-gauze bandage soaked in 2% solution of baking soda, and exposed skin with soap and water, leave immediately lesion.

Other Toxic Substances: Methane, Oxygen. Acetylene, Propane-butane mixture, Methanol (methyl alcohol, carbanol), Diethylene glycol, Odorant, Gas condensate

13. The concept of bacteriological (biological) weapons (BW). "Weapons of mass destruction" (WMD) have been defined as nuclear, biological and chemical weapons (NBC) employed for the purpose of inflicting massive damage, including the killing of large numbers of civilians.1 The term consolidates nuclear, biological and chemical weapons into one category because, despite differences in their effects and use, they share enormous lethality and symbolism. WMD is an open-ended concept, potentially allowing for the development of other technologies of mass destruction. "Mass Destruction" is a relative term. BW contains living organisms (as well as the means of their delivery) which is intended for use in warfare to cause death or disease and which for its effect depends on the ability to multiply in the person, animal or plant attacked, while toxins are poisonous products of organisms, which unlike biological agents are inanimate and not capable of reproducing themselves.6 Typically, a BW uses micro-organisms (i.e., bacteria or viruses) or toxins. While bacteria are single celled organisms that invade the human body, replicate and cause disease and death, viruses do the same, but are much smaller, consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) and must invade a host cell to multiply, Poisonous substances that can be synthetically produced or derived from living organisms are toxins.

14. Types and basic properties of BW (bacteria, viruses, rickets, fungi). 14. Types and basic properties of BW (bacteria, viruses, rickets, fungi).

Types and basic properties of biological agents

Pathogenic microorganisms are causative agents of infectious diseases in humans and animals,

which, depending on the size of their structure and biological properties, are divided into the

following classes: bacteria, viruses, fungi, spirochetes and protozoa. The last two classes of

microorganisms are of no importance as biological weapons of destruction.

Bacteria - single-celled microorganisms which are very diverse in their forms. The main forms of

bacteria are: staphylococci, diplococcus, streptococcus, bacillus, vibrions, spirillum.

Their sizes varies from 0,5 up to 8-10 microns. Bacteria in the vegetative form, ie in the form of

growth and development are very sensitive to heat, sunlight, large fluctuations in moisture and

disinfectants and, conversely, retain sufficient stability at low temperatures, even up to minus 15-25oC. Some types of bacteria survive in adverse conditions form the protective capsule or spore.

Microbes in the spore form are highly resistant to desiccation, lack of nutrients, high and low

temperatures and disinfectants. The pathogenic bacteria such as anthrax, botulism, tetanus, etc. have the ability to form spores.

According to the literature, almost all species of bacteria used as weapons of destruction, relatively easy to grow in artificial media, and their mass production is possible using equipment and processes used in industry in the manufacture of antibiotics, vitamins, and products of modern fermentation industries. The majority of agents responsible for the most dangerous human diseases such as plague, cholera, anthrax, glanders, meliodiosis etc. belong to the class of bacteria.

Viruses – an extensive group of microorganisms with a size from 0,08 to 0,35 micron. They can live and reproduce only in living cells by using the biosynthetic machinery of the host cell, i.e. are intracellular parasites. Viruses have a relatively high resistance to low temperatures and desiccation. Sunlight, particularly ultraviolet rays, as well as the temperature above 60oC and disinfectants (formalin, chloramine, and others) are destructive for viruses. Viruses are responsible for more than

75 human diseases, among which are highly dangerous such as smallpox, yellow fever, etc.

Rickettsiae - a group of microorganisms, which occupies an intermediate position between bacteria and viruses. Their sizes - from 0,3 to 0,5 microns. Rickettsiae do not form spores, resistant to drying, freezing and fluctuations in relative humidity, but are sensitive to high temperatures and disinfectants. Diseases caused by rickettsia, called rekketsioses among them are highly dangerous, such as typhus, spotted fever of Rocky Mountains, etc. In vivo rekketsioses are transmitted to humans mainly through the blood-sucking arthropods, which the infectious agents inhabit often as harmless parasites.

Fungi - one- or multi-cellular organisms of vegetable origin. Their sizes varies from 3 to 50 microns or more. Fungi can form spores, are highly resistant to freezing, drying, sunlight and disinfectants.

Diseases caused by pathogenic fungi are called mycoses. Among them are such serious infectious diseases in human like koktsidioadomikos, blaotomikos, histiplasmosis, and others.

15. Diseases caused by biological agents and toxins (anthrax, meliodiosis, glanders, botulism). Pathogenic microorganisms are causative agents of infectious diseases in humans and animals, which, depending on the size of their structure and biological properties, are divided into the following classes: bacteria, viruses, fungi, spirochetes and protozoa. The last two classes of microorganisms are of no importance as biological weapons of destruction

Anthrax

Anthrax – is general acute infectious disease of domestic animals and humans. The disease in humans is characterized by high temperature and the formation of specific carbuncles on the skin and mucous membranes, or the development of inflammatory changes in the lungs or intestine with symptoms of bleeding.

Meliodiosis – is an infectious diseases of humans and rodents, similar to glanders. The causative agent, for the similarity with the bacterium glanders is called false glanders. The microbe – is a thin bacillus, which does not form spores, has the mobility due to the presence of the beam flagella at one end, it is resistant to drying, remains viable at temperatures 26-28 degrees in soil up to a month, in the water - more than 40 days. It is sensitive to disinfectants and heat - under their influence it dies within minutes.

Glanders

Glanders is a chronic disease of horses, rarely of camels, cats and people, caused by the bacteria of glanders. Symptoms: specific nodes, and then ulcers in the respiratory organs and skin. Infection occurs through contact with sick animals. Infected animals should be destroyed. In our country, glanders has been eradicated long ago, but there is a danger of its use as biological weapons.

Botulism

Botulism is caused by botulinum toxin, which is one of the most powerful poisons known at present. Infection can occur through the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, broken skin and mucous membranes. The incubation period-from 2 hours to few days.

Botulinum toxin affects the central nervous system, vagus nerve and nervous apparatus of the heart;