7.3.1. The use of the past perfect

We use the past perfect:

• to indicate that one event happened before another past event or before a specified time in the past:

►The chief accountant had joined the discussion group before the CFO came in. (Past perfect shows the first of two events.)

►By 2012 we had increased our profits threefold.

Time expressions: by, already, for, since, after, yet, before, by the time, by then, etc.

7.4. The past perfect continuous

Affirmative: I / you / we / they/he/she/it + had+been +V_ing

►You had been signing contracts for 2 hours before they came.

Negative: I / you / we / they/he/she/it+had+not+been +V_ing

►You had not been signing contracts for 2 hours before they came.

Interrogative: Had I / you / we / they / he / she / it + been + V_ing?

►Had you been signing contracts for 2 hours before they came?

Short answers: ►Yes, I had. No, I had not. (=hadn’t)

7.4.1. The use the past perfect continuous

We use the past perfect continuous:

• to describe a past action of certain duration which had visible past results:

►Inflation had been decreasing for two years before the government decided to lower interest rates.

KEEP IN MIND: ‘state’ verbs are not used in continuous forms, perfect forms are used instead.

►He had had this job for 5 years when he was made redundant.

NOT: He had been having this job for 5 years when he was made redundant.

Time expressions: for, since

7.5. Used to / would + Infinitive

• used to+V₀ / would + V₀ describe past habits which are no longer true:

►Many companies used to pay / would pay all taxes. These days they try to avoid paying taxes.

• used to+V₀ identifies a past time habit, action or state:

Affirmative: used+V₀

►I used to work flexitime. (=Now I work regular hours.)

Negative: didn’t use+V₀

►I didn’t use to work flexitime.

Interrogative: Did+subject+use+V₀?

►Did you use to work flexitime? or Used you to work flexitime?

Short answer: Yes, I did. No, I didn’t.

• used to+V₀ describes a past repeated action, NOT a single one:

►I used to attend training sessions. These days I don’t attend training sessions.

COMPARE: I attended a training session last week.

NOT: I used to attend a training session last week.

• would + V₀ means a repeated past action, NOT a past state:

►Senior management would hold the staff opinion pools on many corporate issues. These days they don’t hold any opinion pools.

used to +V0/would + v0 + past repeated action BUT: used to + V0 + past state

KEEP IN MIND: would is not used with verbs denoting state (be, belong, own, possess, exist)

►Sarah used to be very indecisive in her teens, but now she is determined.

NOT: Sarah would be very indecisive in her teens, but now she is determined.

►When Mr Lee was the CEO he would call for staff meetings once a month. (He had such a habit.) = When Mr Lee was the CEO he used to call for staff meetings once a month.

DON’T CONFUSE: used to AND be / get used to:

be used to + Ving = be accustomed to get used to + Ving / Noun = get accustomed to

►Mr Lee is used to calling for staff meetings once a month. (=Mr Lee is accustomed to calling for staff meetings once a month.)

►It’s hard to get used to working long hours. (= It is very unusual for some employees to work long hours.)