4. The classification of English consonants according to the manner of articulation

The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstraction may be complete, incomplete and momentary. When the obstruction is complete the organs f speech are in contact and the air stream meets a closure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of the English [p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, ŋ, tʃ, dʒ]. In case of an incomplete obstruction the active organs of speech moves towards the point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the production of the English [f, v, z, s, h, w, l, r, j, ð, θ, ʃ, ʒ]. According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of four groups: occlusive, constrictive, occlusive – constructive (affricates) and rolled. Occlusive consonants (or stops) are sounds in the production which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in a mouth. According to the work of the vocal cords occlusive consonants may be voiced and voiceless. Occlusive voiced consonants are [b, d, g]. Occlusive voiceless consonants are [p, t, k]. Occlusive sonorants are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal. The English occlusive nasal sonorants are [m, n]. Constrictive consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted. Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives (the consonant sounds in the articulation of which the air passage is constricted and the air escape through the narrowing with friction). The English fricatives are [f, v, s, z, h, ð, θ, ʃ, ʒ]. According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced and voiceless. The English voiced fricatives: [v, z, ð, ʒ]. The English voiceless fricatives are [f, s, h, θ, ʃ]. Constrictive sonorants are also made with an incomplete obstruction but with a rather wide air passage; so tone prevails over noise. The English constrictive sonorants are [w, r, l, j]. Occlusive - constrictive sonorants (affricates) are noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. The occlusive- constrictive consonants are [tʃ, dʒ] Rolled consonants may be in Russian language. They are not typical for English language. They are the Russian [p, p’]

5. The classification of English consonants according to the place of articulation.

The place of articulation is determined by the active organs of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation. In the first case consonants are called unicentral in the second they are bicentral. According to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation consonants may be: labial, lingual, and glottal. Labial consonants are made by the lips. They may be bilabial and labio – dental. Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips are active. They are [p, b, m, w]. Lingual consonants are classified into forelingual, mediolingual, backlingual. Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. They differ in the position of the tip of the tongue. According to its work they may be: apical, if the tip of the tongue is active as in the case of the English [t, d, s, z, n, l, θ, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, ð]; dorsal consonants are typical in Russian language, not in English language; cacuminal, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue as in the case of the English [r]. According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be: interdental, alveolar, post – alveolar, palato – alveolar. Interdental consonants are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth [θ, ð]. Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge: the English [t, d, s, z, n, l]. Post-alveolar consonants are made when the tip of the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it [r]. Palato – alveolar consonants are made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate [ʒ, ʃ, tʃ, dʒ]. Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. Palatal consonants are made with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate [j]. Backlingual consonants are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate. They are [k, g, ŋ]. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis.