Chapter IV american schooling lecture 4

Control of Education

The United States does not have a national system of education. Education is considered to be a matter for the people of each state. Although there is a federal Department of Education, under the United States Constitution it has no power to make laws in the field of education. Its function is merely to gather information, to advise, and to help finance certain educational programs. Education Americans say, is ‘a national concern, a state responsibility, and a local function’. Since the Constitution does not state that education is a responsibility of the federal government, all educational matters are left to the individual states. Each state has a Board of Education (usually 3 to 9 members elected by the public or appointed by the governor), not subject to federal control. State laws determine the age of compulsory education, the length of the school year, the way in which teachers shall be certified and many of the courses which must be taught. As a result, each of the 50 state legislatures is free to determine its own system for its own public school.

There is, then, a very large amount of local control. In 1986, an average of 5- per cent of the funds for elementary and secondary education came from state sources, 43 per cent from local funds, and only about 6 per cent from the federal government. Here there are great differences among the states. In New Hampshire more than 80 per cent of the costs were paid from local funds, while in California, on the other hand, the state paid more than 85 per cent of the costs.

With so much local control there is some degree of uniformity of education provided in different parts of the USA, because state and national accrediting agencies insist that certain standards should be maintained and certain things be taught.

There are a great many city or county-owned schools, colleges and universities, and many are supported by the states. In general, colleges and universities, whether state or private, are quite free to determine their own individual standards, admissions, and graduation requirements. Both schools and universities have self-governing groups, associations or boards (made up of individual citizens elected from each community) which ‘accredit’, that is, certify schools and universities as meeting certain minimum standards. Yet membership in such groups is voluntary and they have no official, governmental status.

The major result of this unusual situation is that there is an enormous amount of variety and flexibility in elementary, secondary, and higher (university) education throughout the nation. For example, although all states today require that children should attend school until a certain age, it varies from 16 to 17 (in Mane, New Mexico, North Dakota and Pennsylvania) and 18 (in Nevada, Ohio, Oklahoma and Utah).

Because local and state taxes support the public schools, there are also significant differences in the quality of education. Communities and states that are able or willing to pay more for schools, buildings, materials, and teachers almost always have better educational systems than those that cannot or do not. Attempts by the federal government to provide special funds to poorer areas and schools districts have helped to some degree, but the basic differences remain. Also some Americans are worried that more federal help could lead to less independence and local control of their schools.

On the other hand, local control of the schools has also meant that there is a great deal of flexibility. There is much opportunity to experiment and to fit programmes to local wishes and needs. Typically, local high schools will offer courses of study which they feel best reflect their students’ needs. Students at the same school will commonly be taking courses in different areas. Some might be following pre-university programmes, with an emphasis on those academic subjects required for college work. Others might well be taking coursework which prepares them for vocational or technical positions. Still others might enroll in a general programme combining elements of the academic and vocational. The range of courses available in high schools throughout the USA is enormous, including everything from computers in elementary schools to car design and construction in the vocational programmes.

What makes American education at the secondary level so different from most other countries is that all such programmes, whether academic, technical, or practical, are generally taught, under one roof. The American school is therefore best seen as if it were a combination of all the various types of schools which are usually separated and kept in separate buildings in other countries. As often as possible, too, handicapped children attend the same schools that everyone else does. Although most high schools students in America are following different ‘tracks’, or courses of study, American feel that they should be together as long as possible. They feel that students pursuing different educational goals should learn together and thereby learn to get along together. A common error in comparing American secondary education with that of other countries, therefore, is to compare all American high school students with only the small proportion of students – usually an elite – who attend higher secondary schools in, for instance, European countries. An American high school includes all of the students within the age group, not just those with the highest academic achievements or interests.

Elementary and Secondary Education

Each fall almost 50 million young Americans walk through the doorways of about 100,000 elementary and secondary schools for the start of a new school year. The young people fill classrooms after leaving the kindergartens (k) and continue to study up to the 12^th grade (the term ‘grade’ is used instead of the words ‘class’ or ‘form’). They attend classes for an average of five hours a day, five days a week until the beginning of the following summer. The United States has the shortest school year in the world, an average of 180 days.

About 85 per cent of American students attend public schools (schools supported by American taxpayers). The other 15 per cent attend private schools for which their families choose to pay special attendance fees. Four out of five private schools in the United States are run by churches, synagogues or other religious groups. In such schools, religious teachings are a part of the curriculum, which also includes the traditional academic courses of reading, mathematics, history, geography and science. (Religious instruction is not given in public schools.)

American schoolchildren pass through two main stages of school education on their way to get a high school diploma. They attend elementary school and then the secondary school. Elementary (grammar) and secondary (high) schools are organized on one of two bases: eight years of elementary and four years of secondary school, or six years of elementary three years of junior high school and three years of senior high school.

Although there is no national curriculum in the United States, certain subjects are taught in all K to 12 systems across the country. The programme of studies in almost elementary school includes arithmetic (sometimes elementary algebra or plane geometry in upper grades); languages arts (a subject that includes reading, grammar, composition, literature); penmanship; science; social studies (a subject that includes history, geography, citizenship and economics); music; art; and physical education. And in some cases, a second language (other than English) is offered in upper elementary grades.

Most secondary schools offer the same ‘core’ of required subjects: English, mathematics, science, social studies and physical education. But school boards differ greatly from one district to another in the amount of class time they want high school students to spend on these basic subjects. In high school the subjects studied in elementary school are dealt with in greater detail and in more advanced form. High school students study 4-5 major subjects a year.

American life, p. 49.

In the United States the usual requirements for high school graduation are about 18 ‘units’ of course work. A high school ‘unit’ is equal to about 120 hours of classes in one subject (three hours a week). Students who plan to attend college need over 20 units.

Students are guided by school counselors in choosing electives (subjects not necessary for everybody), which can range from specialized academic to vocational subjects. For example, high schools offer more than one year of math, science and the other core subjects. After they complete the required units in these core areas students can take additional units as electives.

Elective courses vary from school to school. Some high schools specialize in particular types of subjects – business education, or industrial trades or foreign languages, for example. A student planning to be a physician would want to attend a school offering many electives in science. Another student who plans to start to work after leaving school would pay more attention to get practical knowledge and develop practical skills.

Pupils who do not do well often have to repeat courses, or have to have special tutoring, usually done in and by the schools. Many schools also support summer classes, where students can make up for failed courses or even take extra courses.

An important part of high school life is what is called extracurricular activities. The student is free to join a chorus, band or school orchestra; enter the debating team, or participate in sports of all kinds as well as a variety of social activities.

Higher Education

Americans place high value on higher education. Out of more than three million students who graduate from high school each year, about one million go on for ‘higher education’. About 12 million students currently attend schools of higher education.

It is not easy to enter a college at a leading university in the United States. Such a college might receive applications from two per cent of high school graduates, and then accept only one out of every ten who apply. Successful applicants at such colleges are usually chosen on the basis of

a) their high school records;

b) recommendations from their high school teachers;

c) the impression they make during interviews at the university;

d) their scores on the Scholastic Aptitude tests (SATs).

There is no national system of higher education in the United Stets. Instead, there are about 3,000 separate institutions including

1) the university, which may contain

a) several colleges for undergraduate students seeking a bachelor’s (four-year) degree and

b) one or more graduate schools for those continuing in specialized studies beyond the bachelor’s degree to obtain a master’s or a doctoral degree;

2) the four-year undergraduate institution – the college – most of which are not part of a university;

3) the technical training institution, at which high school graduates may take courses ranging from six months to four years in duration and learn a wide variety of technical skills, from hair styling through business accounting to computer programming;

4) and the two-year or community college, from which students may enter many professions or may transfer to four-year colleges or universities.

They may be small or large; rural or urban; religious or secular; highly selective or open to all; private or public.

Students have to pay to go to both private and State universities. Of the nation’s nearly 1,900 four-year institutions of higher learning, 1,200 are privately controlled. Private universities are generally smaller but very expensive. Tuition fees for attending the university, books for classes, and dormitory costs are high. Every young person who enters a higher educational institution can get financial assistance. If a student borrows money from special funds, he should repay it with interest after he finishes his education. Needy students are awarded grants which they do not have to repay. Scholarships are given when a students is doing exceptionally well at school. Some students take part-time jobs in the evenings and at weekends, others look for summer employment to pay for their studies.

There is no clear distinction in terms of quality of education offered between the institutions which are publicly or privately funded. However this is not to say that all institutions enjoy equal prestige nor that there are no material differences among them. The factors determining whether an institution is one of the best, or one of lower prestige, are: quality of teaching faculty and research facilities; amount of funding available for libraries, special programmes, etc., and how selective the institution can be in choosing its students (the competence and number of applicants for admission). The universities with the highest reputation are: California University, Catholic University of America, Cornell University, Harvard University, John Hopkins University, Columbia University, Yale University. The best-known of all is Harvard University, Massachusetts, which was founded in 1636.

The academic year is usually nine months, or two semesters of 4 and a half months each. Studies usually begin in September and end in July. There are summer classes for those who want to improve the grates or take up additional courses. The methods of instruction in the universities are lectures, discussions and work in laboratory. During the first two years at most colleges and universities students usually follow general courses in the arts or sciences and then choose a major – the subject or area of studies in which they concentrate. During one semester (term) a student will study four or five different subjects. The students’ progress is controlled through oral or written tests, term or course papers and a final examination in each course. Each part of a students work in a course is given a mark which helps to determine his final grade. A student’s record consists of his grade in each course. College grades are usually on a five-point scale: A – the highest mark, equal to 5 points; B = 4; C = 3; D = 2; E or F means failure. The points make it possible to calculate the GPA (grade point average). Normally, a minimum GPA of 3,5 points is necessary to continue their studies at the college or university and to graduate.

There are no final examinations and students receive a degree if they have collected enough credits in a particular subject. One hundred and twenty credits are necessary in order to receive a degree at the end of four years of college. Credits are earned by attending lectures (or lab classes) and by successfully completing assignments and examinations. One credit is usually equal to one hour of class per week in a single course, a three – credit science lab, every week. A course may last 10 to 16 weeks – the length of a ‘semester’.

American universities and colleges are usually built as a separate complex, called ‘campus’, with teaching blocks, libraries, dormitories, and many other facilities grouped together on one site, often on the outskirts of the city. Some universities are comprised of many campuses.

Students who study at a university or four-year college are known as undergraduates. Those who have received a degree after 4 years of studies are known as graduates. They may continue with their studies and research work for another two years as graduates in order to get a higher degree. The undergraduate students who study for four years are called as follows:

a) the first-year student is called a freshman;

b) the second-year student is called a sophomore;

c) the third-year student is known as a ‘junior’;

d) the fourth-year student – a senior.

Standards

Standardized examinations play a decisive role at almost every level of education, especially in the admission to colleges and universities. There are two widely used and nationally-administered standardized tests for high school students who wish to attend a college or university. One is SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), which attempts to measure aptitudes in verbal and mathematical fields necessary for college work. The other is the ACT (American College Testing programme), which attempts to measure skills in English, mathematics, and the social and natural sciences. Both tests are given at specific dates and locations throughout the United States by non-profit, non-governmental organizations. The tests are used by universities as standards for comparison but are not in any way ‘official’.

Each year, the SAT is taken by some two million high school students. One million of these students are in their last year of high school. Another million are in their next-to-last year. The ACT, more commonly taken in the western part of the United States, is taken each year by another million high school students.

Similar testing programs exist at higher levels as well. Someone who has already finished four-years of university and wishes to go to a law or medical school is also required to take standardized tests. These tests have been agreed upon by the various law and medical schools and are administered nation wide at scheduled times. Like the SAT or ACT, these tests are not official or governmentally controlled.

Other examinations are however official and usually quite difficult. For example, even after someone has studied for many years and earned a medical degree from a university, this still doesn’t mean that he or she can begin to practice in the USA. The individual states require still further examinations.