Experiments

Once predictions are made, they can be tested by experiments. If test results contradict predictions, then the hypotheses are called into question and explanations may be sought. The experimental control is a technique for dealing with observational error.

Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a double-blind study or an archaeological excavation. Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment which tests the aero dynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.

Formal sciences

The formal sciences are the branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal systems, such as logics, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics, and some aspects of linguistics.

Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world, but instead with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, applied in constructing and testing scientific models dealing with observable reality.

B) Try to comment on the following notions with your partner(s):

1) scientific method 2) hypothesis 3) theory 4) methodology 5) universal statements 6) induction 7) a double-blind study 8) formal sciences

C) What do you understand by the following statements?

- Scientific method is not a recipe: it requires intelligence, imagination, and

creativity.

- Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have — their own creativity, ideas

from other fields, induction, and so on.

- It is essential that the outcome be currently unknown.

- Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes.

D) Try to find out what methods your group mates apply in their scientific research.

Use more information from Supplement Reader.

Task 2. A) Read the text about the ideal scientific supervisor and say which of these traits your supervisor possesses. The Ideal Scientific Supervisor

Several scientific efforts have been made in the United States to establish the personality structure of the ideal scientific supervisor. Ladislas Farrago in his book “War of Wits” lists ten groups of character traits which a good scientific supervisor is supposed to possess:

1. His morale must be high and he must be genuinely interested in the job ahead.

2. He must be energetic, zealous, and enterprising.

3. He must be resourceful, and a quick thinker. He must know how to deal with things, people, and ideas. He must be proficient in some occupational skill.

4. He must be emotionally stable: capable of endurance under stress.

5. He must have the ability to get along with other people, and to work as a member of a team.

6. He must know how to inspire collaboration, to organize, administer, and lead others. He must be willing to accept responsibility.

7. He must have a passion for lecturing and research, and know how to do it.

8. He must be able to get hold of the required equipment ahead of others.

9. He must be agile, strong and daring.

10. He must be able to memorize details, evaluate his observations, and relate them to the greater complex things.

B) Try to discuss the problem of an Ideal Supervisor with your partner.

Task 3 . A) Read the text and be ready to answer which theory you would follow as a manager. Give your reasons. (Look through the text paying attention to the words underlined…)

PEOPLE IN ORGANIZATION

If there is any one characteristic of people which is universally valid and important, it is that they differ. To say that all persons are created equal is a statement of human rights under the law. It communicates nothing at all about human nature. As a matter of fact, people differ greatly in intelligence, aptitudes, physical strength, manual dexterity, knowledge, skill, interests, personality traits, motivation, and many other attributes which potentially influence behavior and productivity.

We are rational – but only to a point. We plan, set goals, think, reason, and live by creeds and values. But we also become frustrated and behave in ways that can be perceived as rational only by someone who understands all our deeply embedded, sometimes conflicting needs, aspirations, and perceptions. In many situations our motivation is unconscious so that not even we understand our own actions.

The fact that one’s environment strongly influences behavior is indisputable. A number of prominent psychologists have assumed that human freedom is an illusion. Human choices are thought to be totally determined. This, of course, is an assumption. Many people do not subjectively perceive themselves in this way. It is significant that behavior and expectations are strongly influenced by what a person believes to be true. Individuals feel responsible for their actions. Also, people consciously believe that their choices are real, regardless of any awareness of philosophical arguments to the contrary. Organizations cannot function optimally without these pragmatic assumptions.

There are, of course, innumerable statements which one might make about human nature, but they would not all have a direct influence on how people should be dealt within the work environment. The late Douglas McGregor did an excellent job of conceptualizing some of the assumptions about human nature which are relevant to organizational behavior. He labeled these, Theory X, the classical or traditional view, and Theory Y, a progressive view upon which he believed a new model for human relations in organizations could be developed.

Theory X. This theory holds that the average person inherently dislikes work, is innately lazy, irresponsible, self-centered, and security oriented, and consequently is indifferent to the needs of the organization. Because of these characteristics, the average person must be threatened, coerced, and controlled. In fact, most people prefer to be directed and controlled. They seek security above all, prefer to avoid responsibility, and both want and need external control in the work situation. Because people are basically cunning and immature, management should experience little difficulty in using a highly directive and manipulative style of supervision.

Theory Y. Experience has shown that Theory X assumptions result in a great deal of difficulty for management although they remain popular with some managers. McGregor’s Theory Y makes the opposite assumptions. People do not inherently dislike work and are not inherently lazy. Rather they have learned to dislike work, to be lazy, and to be irresponsible because of the nature of their work and supervision. They have a high capacity for developing an intrinsic interest in their work, for committing themselves to organizational objectives, and for working productively with a minimum of external controls.

Two points should be made with reference to these theories. First, the Theory X characteristics are said to be inherent or innate. To be such, they would necessarily apply to everyone, which is obviously absurd. On the other hand, under Theory Y, people are said to have the potential or capacity for the responsible behavior and attitudes described. If anyone possesses these qualities, and a great many people do, then everyone has the potential for them. Second, McGregor speaks of assumptions about the average person, and one must ask, «Average on what dimensions?» Are we talking about intelligence? education? experience? Average is a statistical concept. The average person is nonexistent, hypothetical construct. When we make assumptions about the average person, at best we are referring to most people, and in doing so must recognize that there are exceptions.

Task 4. A) Read the text paying attention to the specific terms and notions.