2.Intonation and prosody

Phonemes, syllables and words, as lower—level linguistic units, are grouped by various prosodic means into a higher unit — the utterance. Every concrete utterance, alongside of its phonemic and syllabic structures has a certain prosodic structure, or intonation.

Intonation is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress, tempo, rhythm and voice timbre, which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions and attitudes to­wards the contents of the utterance and the hearer.

Acoustically, intonation is a complex combination of varying fundamental frequency, intensity and duration.

On the articulatory, or production, level intonation is also a complex phe­nomenon. In the production of speech melody certain respiratory muscles regulate the subglottal air—pressure, which makes the vocal cords vibrate. An increase of subglottal pressure raises the pitch of the voice, and its decrease lowers the pitch.

A great number of phoneticians abroad, (including D.Jones, L.Armstrong, R.Kingdon, A.Gimson, J.O'Connor and G.Arnold) define intonation as the variation of the pitch of the voice, thus reducing it to one component — speech melody. This is a narrow approach to the definition of intonation.

Alongside of the term "intonation" the term "prosody" is widely used. "Prosody" and "prosodic" denote non—segmental phenomena, i.e. those which do not enter into the system of segmental phonemes. D. Crystal defines prosodic features as "vocal effects constituted by variations along the parameters of pitch, loudness, duration and silence".

By prosody the majority of phoneticians mean constant physical acoustic characteristics of speech (mainly fundamental frequency, intensity, duration.

The notion of prosody, consequently, is broader than the notion of into­nation as it can be applied to the utterance, the word, the syllable, whereas prosody of the utterance and intonation are equivalent notions.

PROSODIC UNITS

One of the basic problems in the study of prosody is to determine the units in which prosodic features are actualized.

The syllable is widely recognized to be the smallest prosodic unit. It has no meaning of its own, but it is significant for constituting higher prosodic units. Prosodic features of the syllable (tone, stress, dura­tion) depend on its position and function in the rhythmic unit and in the ut­terance.

A rhythmic, or accentual, unit (or group) is either one stressed syllable or a stressed syllable with a number of unstressed ones grouped around it.

3.Methods applied in investigation the sound matter of the lang

We distinguish between subjective methods of analysis by sensory impression and the "objective" methods of analysis by instruments. The oldest simplest and most available method is method of direct observation.

Training and practicing we can gain a high degree of conscious control over the muscular functioning of our vocal operators and by experience we can enquire considerable skills in associating the qualities of the heard sound with the nature of articulations producing it.

Instrumental methods were introduced into phonetics in the 2^nd half of 20^th cent. The use of instruments for measurements and instrumental analysis has resulted in detailed study of the phenomenon which are present in the sound waves or in the articulative processes at any given moment.

Instruments:1.spectography-is a computer that produces pictures of speech sounds;2.redijgraphy-exemines activity inside the vocal cords;3.glotography-studies the vibration of the vocal cords. Both subjective and objective nethods are widely used in modern phonetics.

Articulatory phonetics borders with anatomy and physiology and the tools for investigating just what the speech organs do are tools which are used in these fields: direct observation, wherever it is possible, e.g. lip movement, some tongue movement; combined with x-ray photography or x-ray cinema photography; observation through mirrors as in the laryngoscopic investigation of vocal cord movement; palatography – recording patterns of contact between the tongue and the palate; glottography – studying the vibrations of the vocal cords, etc.Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools used in this field enable the investigator to measure and an alyse the movement of the air in the terms of acoustics. This generally means introducing a microphone into the speech chain, converting the air movement into corresponding electrical activity and analysing the result in terms of frequency of vibration in relation to time. The use of such technical devices as spectrograph, intonograph and other sound analysing and sound synthesizing machines is generally combined with the method of direct observation.The methods applied in auditory phonetics are those of experimental psychology.

4)Theoretical Phonetics has the following branches: 1)articulatory2)acoustic3)auditory4)functional /phonological Each branch of Theoretical Phonetics investigates the appropriate aspect of speech sounds.

Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds.

Articulatory phonetics -The study of how speech sounds are produced by the human vocal apparatus.

Acoustic phonetics- The study of the sound waves made by the human vocal organs for communication.

Auditory phonetic-The study of how speech sounds are perceived by the ear, auditory nerve, and brain.

Articulatory Phonetics investigates the functioning of one’s speech apparatus and mechanism.

Acoustic Phonetics studies the acoustic properties of sounds (quantity, timber/voice quality, intensity, the pitch of the voice and temporal factor) in terms of the frequency of vibration and the amplitude of vibration in relation to time.

Auditory Phonetics is aimed at investigating the hearing process which is the brain activity. Auditory Phonetics and Acoustic Phonetics are very closely connected.

Functional phs investigates the function of sounds in specific languages. It is also called phonology. It studies language phenomenon from the point of view of their use. Functional phs also studies the linguistic function of consonants and vowels ,syllabic structure, word accent and prosodic features such as: tempo, stress, pitch. It’s aim is to discover the principles that govern the way the sounds are originated in languages. Phonology is also sub-divided into 2 branches: segmental(studies phonemes);super segmental( studies intonation). Phonology originated in the 20^th-30^th years of the 20^th century among linguistics of Prague school(mateziw,Strubezkoj). People engaged in the study of phs are known as phonetitians;people engaged in the study of phonology are known as phonologists.

stylistic

1. Expressive means and stylistic devices.

All stylistic means of language can be divided into expressive means and stylistic devices.

Expressive means of a language are those phonetic, morphological, lexical, phraseological and syntactic units and forms which function in the language for emotional and logical intensification of utterance. They can be fixed in dictionaries.

Stylistic devices are not language phenomena. They are formed in speech and most of them do not exit out of context. Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional literary use of some of the facts of the language (including expressive means).

The classification of expressive means and stylistic devices suggested by Prof. Galperin is based on the level-oriented approach. He subdivides all expressive means and stylistic devices into the following groups:

1. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.

2. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices.

3. Phraseological expressive means and stylistic devices

4. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices.

Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices include onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance.

To lexico-semantic stylistic devices we refer simile, metaphor, personification, zeugma, metonymy, synecdoche, allegory, antonomasia, euphemism, periphrasis, antithesis, oxymoron, irony, climax, anticlimax, hyperbole, meiosis, litotes.

On phraseological level stylistic devices are represented by quotation/proverb and saying/cliché/epigram/allusion.

Syntactic stylistic devices are ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, asyndeton, parceling, repetition, enumeration, tautology, polysyndeton, parallel constructions, detachment, inversion, rhetorical questions.

PHONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVISES are used for the purpose of producing a certain acoustic effect, Phonetic stylistic devises include onomatopoeia, alliteration and assonance.

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind wailing, rustling of leaves) by things (machines or tools, etc. - buzz) by people (singing, laughter, yawning, giggle) and animals (moo, croak (frog).

Alliteration is a repetition of consonants, particularly at the beginning of successive words. assonance repetition of vowels.

LEXICO-SEMANTIC STYLISTIC DEVICES

A metaphor is the result of transference of the name of one object to another object (based upon similarity):

Dear Nature is the kindest Mother.

Metonymy It is a transference of a name of one object to another object. It is based on some kind of association connecting the two objects: the word crown may stand for king or queen

Irony is realization of two meanings standing in opposition to each other: It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred. He possessed 2 false teeth and a kind heart.

The pun is a play on words.

Visitor, to a little boy:Is your mother engaged?Engaged? She is already married.

The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence. crazy behaviour

0 x y m o r o n is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense. hot snow

Simile –draws comparison between two different objects in one or more aspects busy as a bee

Periphrasis is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon.to tie the knot – to marry

Euphemism is a variety of periphrasis. Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by more acceptable one. to die —to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to give up the ghost, to go west

Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon. She was scared to death.

Meiosis (understatement) is deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon:Her house is one minute from here.

Litotes consists of such necessary constituents: negative particle not and a word with negative meaning or a negative prefix. He is not without sense of humour.

Climax (висхідна градація) the figure of inequality consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration: I am so sorry, I am so very sorry, I am so extremely sorry.

Anticlimax (нисхідна градація) consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it decreases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration: Not a dollar, not a penny of my money I will devote to you.

Antonomasia (антономазія) is a variant of metaphor which is based upon the principle of identification of human beings with things which surround them. The Snake shouted at her and said that she was fired.

Personification is ascription of human behaviour, thoughts and actions to inanimate objects:

the face of London

Paradox is a figure of speech in which the statement appears to be self-contradictory, but contains something of a truth. Nothing spoils a romance so much as a sense of humour in the woman.

PHRASEOLOGICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

Quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of illustration. The work containing the utterance quoted must have been published or at least spoken in public. It is easier to forgive an enemy than forgive a friend (W. Blake – an English poet).

Proverbs are short, well-known, supposedly wise sayings, usually in simple language.

Love without return is like a question without an answer.

Cliché is generally defined as an expression that has become hackneyed and trite. It has lost its originality by constant repetition; in other words it has become stereotyped:rosy dreams of youth

Epigram is a short clever amusing saying or poem. Men marry because they are tired, women because they are curious. Both are disappointed (O. Wilde).

Allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing.

2. The wordstock of English can be divided into:

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech.

Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it.

The Spesial literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:

1. terms ; poetic words; archaic words; barbarisms and foreign words; literary coinages

Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science. they always come in clusters, either in a text on the subject to which they belong, or in special dictionaries Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic. e.g. ammonia – хім. аміак

Poetic words are used primarily in poetry. Their main function is to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. e.g. eventide - вечір Poetic words and ser expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

Archaic words are words that gradually disappear. Archaic words are used to create a realistic historical background to novels. e.g. methinks (it seems to me) Archaic words are used in historical novels, in official and diplomatic documents, in business letters,

legal language, etc. Archaic words, word-forms and word combinations are also used to create an elevated effect.

Barbarisms and foreign words. are borrowings from other languages. Barbarisms are words originally borrowed from a foreign language and usually assimilated into the native vocabulary, not to differ from its units in appearance or in sound. Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary and they are not registered in the English dictionaries and often are to be explained. Neologism is a new word or a new meaning for an established word.

3. The wordstock of English can be divided into:

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech.

Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it.

The Special colloquial layer of words is frequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates. The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:

-slang; jargonisms; professional words; dialect words; vulgar words; colloquial coinages.

Slang is sometimes described as the language of subcultures or the language of the streets. People use slang because it is more expressive than standard usage. give smb. wings –teach to use drugs

Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new mean­ings imposed on them. Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional.Professionalisms are term-like words. They are used by members of certain trade and profession. Their function is to make speech economical, substituting lengthy Standard English vocabulary. scalpel – a small sharp knife.Vulgar words express strong emotions mainly annoyance, anger. They are not to be found in any style of speech except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters. Be hanged ! - До біса ! Dialectal words in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. Their function is to characterize personalities thorough their speech.loch – lakeColloquial coinages (nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive. Not all of the colloquial nonce-words are fixed in dictionaries or even in writing and therefore most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it.nerd – person who spends too much time at the computer.

4. Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices.

ELLIPSIS (еліпс) is such a syntactic structure in which there is no subject, or predicate, or both. The main parts of elliptical sentences are omitted by the speaker :

• Where did you go?- To the disco.

Aposiopesis is also realized through incompleteness of sentence structure. It appears when the speaker is unwilling to proceed and breaks off his narration abruptly: If you go on like this...

A nominative sentence is a variant of one-member structures: it has neither subject nor predicate.

Morning. April. Problems.

ASYNDETON is deliberate omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives:

Father, mother, sister, brother hand in hand with one another.

Parceling is intentional splitting of sentences into smaller parts separated by full stops:

He loves this girl. Very much.

Stylistic repetition of language units in speech (separate words, word-combinations or sentences) is one of the most frequent and potent stylistic devices.

I am very, very, very tired!

Enumeration is a syntactic device of naming objects so that there appears a chain of homogeneous parts of the sentence:

There were cows, hens, goats and sheep in the village.

Tautology is a repetition of unintentional, involuntary nature.

Darling, darling Kate. Oh, darling Kate. She's dead; I know she's dead. Oh, my darling. Kate darling, darling Kate.

Polysyndeton is stylistically motivated redundant repetition of conjunctions or prepositions:

He no п longer thought about storms, nor about women, nor about great fish, nor about fights, nor about his wife.

Parallelism (паралелізм) is a stylistic device of producing two or more syntactic structures according to the same syntactic pattern:

Mary cooked dinner, John watched TV, Pete played tennis.

Detachment is placement of secondary part of the sentence so that it seems formally independent of the word it logically refers too:

She adored her father, strong, brave and polite.

Rhetoric questions are not questions but affirmative or negative statements put into the interrogative shape: Why should I do it?

Theor grammar

1. Systemic approach to the study of language structure.

Modern linguistic theory is based on the systemic approach to the study of the language. According to this approach L. is the set of elements which are organized in a certain order. So L. is a system of signs (meaningful units) which has strict inner organisation. A distinction should be made between the two notions - Language system and language structure.

Language system is a set of orderly arranged elements (linguistic units) united by the common function.

By Language structure we mean the peculiarities of the organization of the language system, which is expressed in the character of interrelation between its elements.

The first scholar who represented L. as a structured system was the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).

Language system is made up of levels, there are following:

• Phonological, Morphological ,Lexical ,Syntactic

The levels are represented by the corresponding level units:

The phonological level is the lowest level, unit is the` phoneme (the smallest meaningful unit). It has form and function(differentiate morphemes and words), has no meaning.