9. Stylistic classification of the English lexicon

According to the stylistic classification the English lexicon can be classified into: common words, formal layer and informal layer. Informal Style Informal vocabulary is used in one's immediate circle: family, relatives or friends. e. Informal style is relaxed, free-and-easy, familiar and unpretentious. But it should be pointed out that the informal talk of well-educated people considerably differs from that of the illiterate or the semi-educated; the choice of words with adults is different from the vocabulary of teenagers; people living in the provinces use certain regional words and expressions. Forms - primarily spoken General Characteristics - informal, familiar, conversational - paralinguistic context, non-verbal communication Phonetic Features - careless pronunciation /‘feller’ for ‘fellow’; - reduction, Morphological Features - contractions Lexical Features - specific vocabulary - short and simple words - word with emotional meaning: familiar forms of address, vulgarisms, evaluating adjective - nonce words = colloquial coinages: spontaneous attributing of new meanings to already existing words; elusive and readily disappearing from the language again – interjections, - phraseology, idioms , the choice of words is determined in each particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation, but also by the speaker's educational and cultural background, age group, and his occupational and regional characteristics. Informal words and word-groups are traditionally divided into several types. Colloquial Words Among other informal words, colloquialisms are the least exclusive: they are used by everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of literary colloquial words. These are informal words that are used in everyday conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups. A considerable number of shortenings are found among words of this type. Literary colloquial words are to be distinguished from familiar colloquial and low colloquial. The borderline between the literary and familiar colloquial is not always clearly marked. Yet the circle of speakers using familiar colloquial is more limited: these words are used mostly by the young and the semi-educated. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English. Slang very often involves the creation of novel meanings for existing words. It is common for such novel meanings to diverge significantly from the standard meaning. Other types of slang include SMS language used on mobile phones, and "chatspeak,", which is widely used in instant messaging on the Internet. All or most slang words are current words whose meanings have beenmetaphorically shifted. Each slang metaphor is rooted in a joke. This is the criterion for distinguishing slang from colloquialisms: most slang words are metaphors and jocular, often with a rude, mocking, cynical colouring. This is one of the common objections against slang: a person using a lot of slang seems to be sneering and jeering at everything under the sun. People use slang for a number of reasons. To be picturesque, arresting, striking and, above all, different from others. To demonstrate one's spiritual independence and daring. Dialect Words Dialect is a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase. England is a small country, yet it has many dialects which have their own distinctive features. So dialects are regional forms of English which do not have a literary form and are means of oral communication. Jargonisms In the non – literary vocabulary of the English language there is a group of words that are called jargonisms. Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy ['sikrəsɪ] within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Jargonisms are social in character. They are not regional. In Britain and in the US almost any social group of people has its own jargon. The following jargons are well known in the English language: the jargon of thieves and wanderer, generally known as cant; the jargon of the army, known as military slang; the jargon of sportsmen, and many other Professionalisms Professionalisms, as the term itself signifies, are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work and at home. The main feature of professionalism is its technicality. Professionalisms are special words in the non-literary layer of the English vocabulary. Some professionalisms, like certain terms, become popular and gradually lose their professional flavour. Professionalisms should not be mixed up with jargonisms. Like slang words, professionalisms do not aim at secrecy. They fulfill a socially useful function in communication, facilitating a quick and adequate grasp of the message. Vulgar Words or Vulgarisms vulgarisms are: 1) swear words which are of an offensive character, and, as some dictionaries state, used now as general exclamations; 2) obscene words. Formal Style We have already pointed out that formal style is restricted to formal situations. In general, formal words fall into two main groups: archaic, terms, foreignisms, learned words Learned Words These words are mainly associated with the printed page. It is in this vocabulary stratum that poetry and fiction find their main resources. A somewhat out-of-date term for the same category of words is "bookish These are the words of the official, bureaucratic language. Also include poetic words Though learned words are mainly associated with the printed page, this is not exclusively so. Any educated English-speaking individual is sure to use many learned words not only in his formal letters and professional communication but also in his everyday speech without knowing some learned words, it is even impossible to read fiction (not to mention scientific articles) or to listen to lectures delivered in the foreign language. Terms One of the most characteristic features of a term is its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline or art, Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the style of language of science. But their use is not confined to this style. They may as well appear in other styles—in newspaper style, in publicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language. But their function in this case changes. They do not always fulfill their basic function that of bearing exact reference to a given concept. This may be true. But, in fact, terms do possess synonyms. Poetic and Highly Literary Words Poetic words form a rather insignificant layer of the special literary vocabulary. They are mostly archaic or very rarely used highly literary words which aim at producing an elevated effect. They have a marked tendency to detach themselves from the common literary word-stock and gradually assume the quality of terms denoting certain definite notions and calling forth poetic diction Poetic words and expressions are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry. This may be said to be the main function of poetic words. Archaic, Obsolescent [ɔbsə'lesnt] and Obsolete Words The word-stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. Words change their meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether. New words spring up and replace the old ones. Some words stay in the language a very long time and do not lose their faculty of gaining new meanings and becoming richer and richer polysemantically. The beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called o obsolescent, i. e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use. To this category first of all belong morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language. The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community. The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either- dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable, By-gone periods in the life of any society are marked by historical events, and by institutions, customs, material objects, etc. which are no longer in use. There is still another class of words which is erroneously classed as archaic, historical words., Words of this type never disappear from the language. They are historical terms and remain as terms referring to definite stages in the development of society and cannot therefore be dispensed with, though the things and phenomena to which they refer have long passed into oblivion. Historical words have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have been replaced by modern synonyms. Barbarisms and Foreignisms In the vocabulary of the English language there is a considerable layer of words called barbarisms. These are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue There are foreign words in the English vocabulary which fulfil a terminological function. Common Words Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings. Common words are used in writing and in polished speech. These words are stylistically neutral, and, in this respect, opposed to formal and informal words. Their stylistic neutrality makes it possible to use them in all kinds of situations, both formal and informal, in verbal and written communication. These words are used every day, everywhere and by everybody, regardless of profession, occupation, educational level, age group or geographical location. These are words without which no human communication would be possible as they denote objects and phenomena of everyday importance . The common vocabulary is the central group of the vocabulary, its historical foundation and living core. That is why words of this stratum show a considerably greater stability in comparison with words of the other strata, especially informal. Basic vocabulary words can be recognised not only by their stylistic neutrality but, also, by entire lack of other connotations (i. e. attendant meanings). Their meanings are broad, general and directly convey the concept, without supplying any additional information. The common vocabulary and the stylistically marked strata of the vocabulary do not exist independently but are closely interrelated. Most stylistically marked words have their neutral pairs in the basic vocabulary. (Terms are an exception in this respect.) Common vocabulary- Informal- Formal continue- go on- proceed, child, baby- kid, brat, beam (dial.)- infant In teaching a foreign language, the common vocabulary words comprise the first and absolutely essential part of the students' functional and recognition vocabularies. They constitute the beginner's vocabulary. Yet, to restrict the student to the basic vocabulary would mean to deprive his speech of colour, expressive force and emotive shades, for, if basic vocabulary words are absolutely necessary, they also decidedly lack something: they are not at all the kind of words to tempt a writer or a poet. Actually, if the language had none other but basic vocabulary words, fiction would be hardly readable, and poetry simply non-existen