6. Фразеология

1. Лексическая и грамматическая сочетаемость

2. Понятие фразеологической единицы.

3 Происхождение и классификация фразеологических единиц

The word-combination (WC) is the largest two-facet lexical unit observed on the syntagmatic level of analysis. By the degree of their structural and semantic cohesion WCs are classified into free word combinations and phraseological units.

Lexical combinability (collocation) is the aptness of a word to appear in certain lexical contexts. Each word has a certain norm of collocation. Any departure from this norm is felt as a stylistic device. The collocations of correlated words in different languages are not identical.

Grammatical combinability (colligation) is the aptness of a word to appear in certain grammatical contexts, e.g. the adjective heavy can be followed by a noun (heavy storm), by an infinitive (heavy to lift). Each grammatical unit has a certain norm of colligation, the departure from the norm of colligation is usually impossible.

Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are registered in special dictionaries. Like words, phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. In other words, they are characterized by semantic and structural integrity. American and British lexicographers call such units idioms.

Phraseological units can be classified in different ways. According to the degree of motivation of their meaning acad. V.V. Vinogradov classified phraseological units into three types:

a) fusions (фразеологические сращения) where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, e.g. on Shank‘s mare (on foot); in Russian: бить баклуши;

b) unities (фразеологические единства) where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorically or metonimically), e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor);

c) collocations (фразеологические сочетания) where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry – self-service shop, in a big way (in great degree).

Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseological units denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train, a latchkey child;

b) verb phraseological units denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to to get on somebody‘s coattails, to be on the beam;

c) adjective phraseological units denoting a quality, e.g. dead as a doornail, dull as lead;

d) adverb phraseological units, e.g. with a bump, in the soup;

e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of;

f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. Catch me! Well, I declare!

In I.V. Arnold classification there are also sentence equivalents: proverbs, sayings and quotations. A proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way. Proverbs are usually metaphorical, while sayings are, as a rule, non-metaphorical, e.g. Where there is a will there is a way – Кто хочет, тот добьется. Though the issue of whether proverbs should be included in phraseological stock of a language is arguable. Some scientists reason that phraseological units should be equivalent to words in their syntactical function, whereas proverbs function only as a whole sentence and cannot make up larger syntactical units. On the other hand, proverbs have much in common with set expressions, because their lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made. That is why some scholars following V.V. Vinogradov think proverbs must be studied together with phraseological units. Moreover, there exist lively interrelation between set expressions on the one hand and proverbs and quotations, on the other hand . In many cases proverbs give rise to a word-equivalent idiom. Both set expressions and proverbs are sometimes split and changed for humorous purposes, as in the following quotation: It will be an age not perhaps of gold, but at least of glitter. As to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their origin. They come from literature but by and by they become part and parcel of the language, so that many people using them do not even know that they are quoting. The main argument for considering these as a part of phraseological stock – or at least of its periphery – is that many phrases that are now considered as set expressions can be easily traced to literary works.

7. Особенности грамматического строя английского языка.

1 Основные единицы морфологического уровня. Грамматическая категория, грамматическая парадигма.

2. Части речи.

3. Категории английского существительного

4. Категории английского глагола.

Basic notions of English morphology

1. Two branches of grammar are morphology and syntax. The subject of morphology is the grammatical classes and groups of words, their grammatical categories and systems of forms (paradigms) in which these categories actually exist. Syntax examines the ways in which words may be combined and the relationships that exist between the words in combination.

Unlike lexical meanings grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites a whole class of words. Grammatical meanings are the most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as. Grammatical meanings ranged in oppositions and presented in grammatical forms build grammatical categories.

Grammatical forms can be formed by one or more morphemes, synthetic forms, and grammatical word combinations, which are analytical forms. Synthetic forms unite both lexical and grammatical meanings in one word. In analytical forms there two or more words in which at least one element is an auxiliary. Grammatical paradigms express various grammatical categories. The minimal paradigm consists of two form-stages. This kind of paradigm we see, for instance, in the expression of the category of number. A grammatical category is a unit of grammar based on a morphological opposition of grammatical meanings presented in grammatical forms.

The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and differential features. Common features serve as the basis of comparison, while differential features express the function.

2. Parts of speech are classes of words, all the members of these classes having certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of other classes. The problem of word classification into parts of speech still remains one of the most controversial problems in modern linguistics. In English grammarians have been vacillating between 3 and 13 parts of speech.

In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated according to three criteria: semantic, formal and functional. This approach may be defined as complex. Thus, when characterizing any part of speech we are to describe: a) its semantics; b) its morphological features; c) its syntactic peculiarities.

In accordance with the criteria, we can classify the words of the English language into notional and functional. To the notional parts of speech of the English language belong the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb. Notional parts of speech unite the words of complete nominative meaning characterised by self-dependent functions in the sentence. Contrasted against the notional parts of speech are words of incomplete nominative meaning and non-self-dependent, mediatory functions in the sentence. These are functional parts of speech. Traditionally only unchangeable words are treated under the heading of functional parts of speech. To the basic functional series of words in English belong the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the interjection. Generally speaking, the problem of words’ classification into parts of speech is far from being solved. Some words cannot find their proper place. The most striking example here is the class of adverbs.Each part of speech after its identification is further subdivided into subseries in accord with various particular semantic-functional and formal features of the constituent words. This subdivision is sometimes called "subcategorisation" of parts of speech.

3. NOUN Semantic features. The noun possesses the grammatical meaning of thingness, substance.

Morphological features of the noun. In accordance with the morphological structure of the stems all nouns can be classified into simple, derived, compound and composite. The noun has morphological categories of number and case. The number category is realized through the opposition of two form-classes: the plural form :: the singular form. Formally it is the opposition of zero exponent vs. plural-building morpheme s/es [z,s,iz] inflexion. There are also non-productive ways of expressing number: inner inflexion, or sound alternation: man/men, woman/women, suffix –(e)n, as well as suffixes of borrowed nouns.

There is no universal point of view as to the case system in English. Different scholars stick to a different number of cases – from 6 to no cases at all.

As to gender, according to some language analysts, nouns have no category of gender in Modern English. The difference between such nouns as actor and actress is a purely lexical one.

Syntactic features of the noun. The noun can be used in the sentence in all syntactic functions but predicate. These are substantive functions in the sentence (subject, object, substantival predicative); prepositional connections; modification by an adjective. Nouns are subcategorised into proper and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract, etc.