English proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations*, clichés

*familiar quotations крылатые выражения

The status of the utterances named in the title of the lecture with respect to set expressions is a controversial issue. However, the association between them and as an example set expressions can be traced in the fact that many proverbs in the course of their long use in speech are split into smaller parts and turn into sayings. If this process continues, a saying may result in an idiom due to its further curtailment. The common feature uniting the above said utterances and set expressions is 1) that these are not isolated words but word combinations and 2) that all of them employ figurative meanings of some of their parts or of themselves as a whole.

A proverb is traditionally defined as a short familiar statement expressing a popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and typically imaginary way. Many proverbs from the formal standpoint are rhythmically organized, which facilitates their memorization and spontaneous use in speech. Proverbs have much in common with set expressions, e.g. their lexical components are constant, their structure is unchangeable, and the meaning of the components – figurative. They are introduced into speech ready-made and show evident resistance towards modification. Like set expressions, proverbs may be associated through their origin with some definite source or author, which are usually forgotten by the speaking community.

Due to all these common features some scholars, especially in the west, do not separate these types of phrases. Still others believe that proverbs can be hardly included into the lexical system, because they stand too far from the central lexical unit, which is the word, and are independent units of communication. The further classification of such units would embrace structures like riddles, children’s counting rhymes, nursery rhymes, etc., which are already texts. But this viewpoint can hardly be approved.

Proverbs often serve as the basis for the formation of idioms, e.g. the last straw breaks the camel’s back (proverb) < the last straw (idiom); a drowning man will clutch at a straw (proverb) < to clutch at a straw (idiom). Both set expressions and proverbs can sometimes be split and changed for stylistic purposes.

all is not gold that glitters (proverb) + the Golden Age (idiom) = it will be the age perhaps not of not but at least of glitter

Aldous Huxley used the set expressions to marry into money in the characteristics of a woman who was described as the one who married herself into conversation, since she was unusually talkative and married someone who listened to her.

Lexicology does not show the great interested in proverbs, as the latter are mainly studied by folklorists. Among the most distinctive features of proverbs is that they are always grammatically complete sentences, e.g. the proof of the pudding is in the eating. However, ellipsis may often occur with the proverbs omitted may be even some principles members of the sentence, like the predicate, e.g. one law for the rich and another for the poor. As proverbs are sentence, their classification is also normally based on the classification of sentences, e.g.:

1. affirmative sentences, simple: Homer sometimes nods; pride goes before a fall;

2. negative sentences, simple: you can’t eat your cake and have it;

3. complex sentences: he that dies, pays all debts; he laughs best who laughs last;

4. imperative sentences

   1. with affirmation: let sleeping dogs lie;

   2. with negation: don’t count your chickens before they are hatched;

   3. complete sentences: do in Rome as the Romans do;

5. interrogative sentences: can the leopard changes his spots?

Such questions are naturally rhetorical and do not need any answer.

Sayings, in contrast to proverbs, usually do not contain any moral lesson and are colloquial in their essence, but sayings usually express positive or negative evaluation, e.g. more power to your elbow, does your mother know you’re out?. As sayings may also be compared to sentences, although ellipticized, their classification may basically be the same as that of proverbs. Both proverbs and sayings employ in their structure a number of expressive means like repetition (forewarned is forearmed), juxtaposition, euphony (rhyme, alliteration, etc.: birds of a feather flock together).

Familiar quotations, different from proverbs and sayings by their origin and mainly coming from literature, may gradually become part of the language. The speaking community usually tends to forget their sources and give their alternated variants. This process is named anonymisation of quotations. Among such utterances we may find a lot of bibleisms, Shakespeare’s phrases (uneasy lies the head that wears the crown, give every man thy ear but few thy voice).

The term cliché comes from the French term of printing. Such phrases are so frequently used that it resulted in the loss of their original expressive power, so that now they are recommended for avoidance. The acid test, the arms of Morpheus, to break the ice, the irony of fate, a sigh of relief, swan song, to sleep the sleep of the just, to stand shoulder to shoulder, to walk arm in arm, etc.

Although clichés should be avoided, they nevertheless play a very important role in everyday communication and in different types of speech. Some types of communication are highly clichéd by their nature, e.g. scientific literature and documentation, and are highly formalized. On the other hand, such informal communication types as colloquial speech and fiction are also abundant in clichés used in principally different purposes, e.g. for the creation of humorous effect.