Dialectics of translation

1. Inseparability of form and meaning.10

A translator is to convey not only the ideas and themes of the source text (meaning, sense); s/he should also pay attention to the adequate form to express these ideas. S/he should not become carried away with a free (loose) form of translation, nor force the target language by following the source text word for word. A translator always bears in mind a stardard language of the target text, for, as W.Benjamin put it figuratively, «while content and language form a certain unity in the original, like a fruit and its skin, the language of the translation envelops its content like a royal robe with ample folds.» ¹¹

2. Social functions.

Translation does not exist outside of society. It appeared in society when communities began to trade and exchange ideas. At the same time, translation helps the world community develop. Nations could hardly have achieved the technological success as it is in the 20^th century if there had been no translations in electronics, physics, chemistry and other branches of science and technology.

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica¹², in the 20^th century most of the world’s people speak one of about 75 primary languages. A small minority speak one of 450 secondary languages, and more than 4,400 other languages are in use. Without translation and translators the world would not be able to progress.

4.Translation and culture are inseparable.

Translation could not have developed without culture. Literature, science, and philosophy influence translators’ conceptualizations. On the other hand, culture could not have developed without translation, since translations enrich nations with the cultural values of other nations.

3. Reflection and creativity in translation.

Translation reflects the source text but it does not copy it. To translate adequately, a translator must do his or her best to find a proper means of expression. A translator bears in mind that the receptor has a cultural background other than that of a receptor of the original text; therefore, s/he has to be very resourceful in producing the same impact upon the receptor as that of the source text. Special problems arise in translating dialects, foreign speech, puns, poetry, etc. And a translator is in constant search for new tools to solve translation problems.

4. Translation is an art and a science.

Translation is dominated by objective, scientific, and linguistic description and explanation. At the same time it is a subjective choice of means preserving stylistic equivalence of the source text.

2. "Our profession is based on knowledge and experience. It has the longest apprenticeship of any profession. Not until thirty do you start to be useful as a translator, not until 50 do you start to be in your prime.

The 1^st stage of the career pyramid is investing in ourselves by acquiring knowledge and experience of life. Let me propose a life path: grandparents of different nationalities, a good education… Then roam the world, make friends, see life. Go back to education but to take a technical or commercial degree, not a language degree. Never marry into your nationality. Have your children and then go back to your postgraduate translation course. A staff job as a translator and then go freelance. By that time you are 40 and ready to start." ( Lanna Castellano)

Since 2007, a time when most of the economy was taking a severe beating, translation and interpretation services have grown by about 50%. According to NAICS this industry, “comprises establishments primarily engaged in translating written material and interpreting speech from one language to another and establishments primarily engaged in providing sign language services.”

Here is an overview:

In the U.S. there are currently 3,000 establishments, or places of work, that provide translation services. From 2007-2011, the industry created over 7,000 new jobs and now has nearly 22,000 estimated jobs. Over 60% of the people employed in this sector are female and more than 50% are younger workers — between the ages of 25 and 44.

In its annual industry research report, “Language Services Market 2012,” the firm details the findings of its comprehensive study, identifying 26,104 unique suppliers of translation and interpreting services across 154 countries.

The firm, which has published market size estimates and global rankings for the past seven years, found that the demand for language services continues, and is growing at an annual rate of 12.17%. Global trade, international business, and content growth are three critical drivers for the language services industry. This year, the research firm expands its list of top language services providers to 100 global companies.

“The widespread availability of online machine translation has not decreased the demand for high-quality human translation. Data from previous surveys indicate that, with important sectorial variations, the translation field in Europe comprises around 74 percent freelance (self-employed) workers and about 60 percent part-time workers. The general proportion of women is 70 percent or above. Annual salaries are spread across a very wide range, from under 6,000 euros up to around 50,000 euros, with a small group at more than 90,000 euros, where translation seems to be combined with managerial tasks. More importantly, the generic activity of translators appears not to qualify as a “regulated profession” in terms of Professional Qualifications Directive (2005/36/EC): no one can stop an unqualified person from working as a translator, except as under a 2007 law in Slovakia. This general profile (freelance, part-time, fragmented and unregulated) may require modes of professionalisation that differ significantly from those of other liberal professions. "

3. Translation competence: skill, aptitude or qualification?

Defining translator’s competence; finding a proper name:

w Transfer competence (Nord, 1991: 161)

w Translational competence (Toury, 1995: 250-51; Hansen, 1997: 205; Chesterman, 1998: 147)

w Translator competence (Kiraly, 1995: 108)

w Translation performance (Wilss 1989: 129)

w Translation ability (Lowe, 1987: 57; Pym, 1993: 26; Stansfield, Scott & Kenyon 1992)

w Translation skill (Lowe, 1987: 57)

Translation competence labels

• Translation performance (Wilss 1989: 129; Rothe-Neves, 2007)

• Translation skill (Lowe, 1987: 57)

• Transfer competence (Nord, 1991: 161)

• Translation ability (Lowe, 1987: 57; Pym, 1993: 26; Stansfield, Scotty Kenyon 1992; Hatim and Mason, 1997)

• Translator competence (Kiraly, 1995: 108)

• Translator’s competence (Kussmaul, 1995: 33)

• Translational competence (Toury, 1995: 250-51; Hansen, 1997: 205; Chesterman, 1997: 147)

• Translating competence (Gerding, 2000)

What type of knowledge is required for translation?

• Four basic parameters are essential to translation competence (e.g. Gerding-Salas, 2000):

1. Knowledge of the languages

2. Knowledge of the cultures

3. Domain-specific knowledge

4. Transfer competence

• Neubert (2000) describes five sub-competencies: language, textual, subject, cultural and transfer competence.

What is translation competence?

• The mental equipment that constitutes the translator’s unique cognitive set or ability of matching language, textual, subject and cultural competences.’ (Neubert, 2000: 12)

• It is where translators are judged, no matter how competent they may be in other aspects (Neubert, 2000)

• Translator’s competence acts upon text segments of varying sizes (translation units) (Neubert & Shreve, 1992)

Translator’s competence Neubert (Developing Translation Competence, 2000)

• Complexity (intricacy; complication)

• Heterogeneity (several different skills)

• Approximation (not fully competent in all fields)

• Open-endedness (always learning from experts & texts)

• Creativity (originality, initiative, resourcefulness)

• Situationality (circumstantiality, location)

• Historicity (flexibility to accept changes)

Bilingual competence, while an indispensable condition, is not enough to guarantee translation competence at academic level

(Krings, 1986, Lörscher, 1991; Toury, 1995; Kussmaul, 1995; Gerding-Salas, 2000)

• The knowledge and skills the translator must possess in order to carry out a translation” (Bell, 1991: 43)

• “The ability to know how to translate" (Hurtado Albir, 1996: 48)

• For PACTE (2000), translation competence is "the underlying system of knowledge and skills needed to be able to translate”

The PACTE (Process in the Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation) Group investigates the Acquisition of Translation Competence in written translation, both direct and inverse.

1. Bilingual sub-competence: procedural knowledge required to communicate in two languages, i.e. pragmatics, sociolinguistics, textuality, grammar and lexis

2. Extra-linguistic sub-competence: bi-cultural, encyclopedic and subject knowledge

3. Translation sub-competence: aspects of the profession, the labor market, etc.

4. Instrumental sub-competence: procedural knowledge for the use of documentation resources & information & TICs

5. Strategic sub-competence: procedural knowledge that guarantees efficiency in the translation process by identifying problems. It creates links between the other sub-competencies

6. Psycho-physiological components: cognitive components, such as memory, perception, attention span, etc.; attitudes such as curiosity, rigor, etc.; and abilities such as creativity, analysis, logical reasoning, etc.

SUMMING UP:

• Communicative and textual subcompetence in at least two languages.

• Cultural subcompetence and encyclopaedic knowledge.

• Thematic subcompetence in the translation areas.

• Instrumental and professional subcompetence: use of sources and resources, business administration, union trade activity, and deontological knowledge.

• Psychophysiological subcompetence: translator awareness, self-confidence, attention span, memory...

• Interpersonal subcompetence: relationships, team work.

• Strategic subcompetence: procedures related to work organization and performance, problem identification and resolution, and self-evaluation and revision.