Role of Cognitive Variables in Instrumental Conditioning

In instrumental theorizing, thinking can be viewed as a form of behavior and, as such, can serve several functions. Thoughts may serve as a discriminative stimulus for behaviors, such as when thoughts about the dangers of driving lead to avoidance of driving. Thoughts may serve as establishing operations that alter the perceived consequences of behavior, such as when the thought that “if I drink alcohol, I will feel better” leads to increased drinking. Thoughts may also function as reinforcing or punishing consequences, such as positive thoughts about one’s success or negative thoughts about one’s failure in a given situation. Or, thoughts may function as rules that govern behavior. In all of these cases, thoughts are viewed in terms of their function and not their content.

Furthermore, as with classical conditioning, early mechanistic models of operant theorizing have been replaced by expectancy models, in which conditioning is presumed to result in the formation of representations of the relationship between a response and an outcome. That is, instrumental (operant) learning situations produce expectancies that certain behaviors will produce particular outcomes (see Kirsch et al., 2004, for a review). As with classical conditioning, there is some evidence that explicit expectancies may even mediate operant conditioning. For example, simply informing participants about response-reinforcement contingencies can produce instrumental learning, just as can information that the contingency is no longer present produce extinction. In addition, devaluing the value of the reinforcer reduces the operant responding because motivation for the outcome has presumably declined. On the other hand, there appear to be some occasions when instrumental conditioning proceeds without explicit cognitive mediation. For example, in some instances devaluation of the reinforcer has no effect (see Kirsch et al., 2004). Hence, both mechanistic and explicit cognitive processes may underlie instrumental conditioning.

Nonetheless, recognition of the role of expectancies in instrumental conditioning allows an integration between instrumental learning theory and cognitive theory. The expectancy for positive reinforcement and the perceived value of such reinforcement—and similarly the expectancy for punishment and its perceived value—likely represent individual difference variables that contribute to the potency of reinforcement and punishment. For example, depressed mood and lowered motivation to respond in general maybe in part due to lowered expectancy of reinforcement. Similarly, a tendency to devalue received reinforcement (e.g, disregarding a compliment as “fake”) may contribute to the behavioral deficits of depression. Conversely, antisocial behavior may be in part due to lowered expectancy of punishment and/or lowered value of received punishment (e.g., disregard for the threat of pain from a physical confrontation). Consequently, cognitive methods can be incorporated into instrumental behavioral procedures to enhance the value of the consequences being used to modify behavior. For example, cognitive therapy that enhances the expectancy and/or value of positive reinforcement can be combined with behavioral exercises designed to increase positive reinforcement, whether it be exercise, social interaction, or work performance.