The Scandinavian Elements

Words are sometimes called Scandinavian if they were not met in Anglo-Saxon written documents up to the 11-th century.

e.g. anger, fellow, gate, husband, sky, want, window, to hit etc.

Among numerous Scandinavian borrowings we find the pronouns: same, both, they and adverbs: hence, whence, thence, which ousted the OE theoran, ƥanon, hwanon.

[sk] in words of Scandinavian origin: scull, scare, scream, scrape, busk (to dress), bound (on a journey), window (meaning wind-eye) where the purely English words would have [S], since the OE sc turned into sh.

The hard [g] and [k] sounds before i, e speak for the words of Scandinavian origin.

Toponymic names e.g. Sc. byr (village): Derby, Whitby, Grimsby

foss (waterfall): Fossbury, Fossway

Latin borrowings

Among Latin borrowings we must distinguish those borrowed:

1. Through immediate contact, that is orally at the early stages of language development.

2. Later borrowings which came through writing.

e.g. pear, pea, pepper, cheese, plum, butter, wine, kettle, cup, dish, line.

Words that pertain to trade: cheap, pound, inch.

Words had a military flavour, for the Romans built fortifications, military camps and roads: port, street, wall, mill.

These words became head-words of whole groups of derivatives, compounds and set expressions.

e.g. wine bag, wine bowl, wine cellar, winecoloured;

cheap, cheaply, cheapness, cheaper.

Christianity as a source of borrowings.

e.g. altar, angel, anthem, bishop, candle, disciple, devil, martyr, priest, temple

the Norman Conquest (1066).

Revival of Learning (the Renaissance):

 terms of philosophy, mathematics, physics: diameter, fundamental, momentum, radius, vacuum;

 words pertaining to law and government: alibi, affidavit, coroner, veto, judicial;

 medicine: anesthetics, diagnosis;

 geography: equator, continental, peninsula.

Some of these words can be traced to Greek roots.

Here are some abbreviations met in writing:

e.g. – exempli gratia=for example

i.e. – id est=that is

a.m. – before noon

p.m. – after noon

etc. – and so on

The Norman – French Elements

1. From the Norman dialect (during the 1-st century after the Norman Conquest of 1066).

2. From the French national literary language beginning with the 15-th century.

The Anglo-Norman dialect

e.g. happiness – felicity

help – aid

weak – feeble

French borrowings of the 12-16-th centuries show both the social status of the Norman invaders and their supremacy in economic, cultural and political development:

 terms of law: accuse, acquit, judge, amend, jury, prison

 military terms: army, peace, armour, assault, battle, powder, siege, officer, sergeant, soldier etc.

 religious terms: saint, miracle, charity, mercy, clergy, pray, religion

 trade and everyday affairs: barber, butcher, grocer, chamber, tailor, beef, veal, mutton, pleasure, leisure, comfort, delight

 terms of rank: duke, duchess, prince, peer

 terms of art: beauty, colour, image, design, figure, costume, garment

 terms of architecture: arch, tower, pillar, column, palace, castle, mansion

In most cases such words were completely assimilated:

e.g. the [Z] turned into [G] in words age, marriage

[J]  [R] design, crime

long [R] gave sound [eI]: grace, blame

ch  [C]: chance, change, charity

Later French borrowings

e.g. automobile, foyer, garage, machine, technique