Section 2

Text 1. ISAAC NEWTON

Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642, in the little village of Woolthorpe, not far from the old university town of Cambridge in a farmer’s house.

As a schoolboy, Newton used to make things with his own hands. In particular, he made a primitive wooden clock that was driven by a slow escape of water.

His family wanted him to become a farmer, and he did his best to be of use at the farm, but with no success, as his mind was always busy with observing various phenomena of nature and reflecting upon them.

At the age of 18 he was sent to Cambridge and there he followed the ordinary mathematical courses of his time. Some years later after having taken his degree he was appointed professor to the chair of physics and mathematics at Cambridge. He delivered an exterided course of lectures in optics.

The study of light was Newton’s favourite study. Having made a number of experiments with lenses, he came to the conclusion that white light consisted of rays of different colours and that each particular kind of coloured ray was differently bent when it fell on a glass surface at an angle. His results formed the basis of modern spectrography, greatly enriching the field of optics.

While quite a young man he developed a mathematical method indispensable for all questions involving motio method which is now known under the name of the differential and the integral calculus was developed at the same time by the German scientist and philosopher Leibnitz.)

The theory of gravity was developed by him in its essential features when he was only 24, but some twenty years later he returned to this subject. Having been brought, by the fall of an apple, to the conclusion that the apple and the Earth were pulling one another, be began to think of the same pull of gravity extending far beyond the Earth. The problem of the paths of the planets, one of the greatest problems of those times, was «what laws could account for the ceaseless motion of the planets round the sun?»

Newton deduced and calculated the force of gravity acting between the Sun and the planets, thus establishing the law of gravitation in its most general fojrm. By discovering this law he demonstrated the uniformity of things and found a connecting link between the mechanics of the Earth and the mechanics of the heavens. His great work «Principia», published in 1687, have an insight into the structure and mechanics of the Universe.

He also discovered the three laws of motion which we still consider to be the basis of all calculations concerning the motion.

He died in 1727, at the age of eighty-four. His funeral ceremonies were those of a national hero. It was the first time that national honours of this kind have been accorded in England to a man of science or to any figure in the world of thought, learning or art. .

Vocabulary notes

to drive їхати, приводити в рух

to do one’s best робити все можливе

to reflect (upon) розмірковувати

to appoint призначати, назначати

indispensable той, без якого не можна обійтися

involve втягувати, залучати

to account for (smth) пояснювати

to cease припиняти

ceaseless безперервний

heaven,n небо

to give insight into (smth) дозволити проникнути похорон

funeral, n ['fjurnaralj

to accord honours надавати почесті

LEXICAL EXERCISES

І. Translate into Ukrainian these word combinations from the text:

escape of water; to do one’s best; with no success; to follow the ordinary course; to take one s degree; to come to the conclusion; to be brought to the conclusion; to deliver a course of lectures; each particular kind of light; differently bent; to fall at an angle; to develop a method; indispensable for all questions involving motion; differential and integral calculus; in essential features; to pull one another; to extend far beyond the Earth; paths of planets; to account for, uniformity . things; connecting lmk; mechanics of the heavens, to give an insight; calculations concerning the motion; funeral ceremonies; a national hero; to accord honours; the world of learning.

ІІ. In groups A and B match the synonyms:

А. schoolboy, observe, reflect upon, ordinary, develop, essential, ceaseless, pull, account for, establish, demonstrate, connect, primitive.

В. very simple, usual, bind, think, watch, formulate, explain, attract, work out, pupil, watch, endless.

ІІІ. Translate the sentences, paying attention to the italicized words.

1. When a child, Newton used to observe closely phenomen of nature. 2. Later on, he used these observations in making his deductions and conclusions. 3. When Newton began his calculations, he did not know that the figure for the distance from the Earth to the Moon was not correct. 4. Taking part in social activities, he was not only a great man of science, but also an outstanding figure of his time. 5. His mind was always busy with reflecting upon the secrets of the universe. 6. Newton’s reflecting telescope, although small in size, gave a general idea of the ceaseless motion of Jupiter’s moons. 7. The mathematical method developed by Newton was the subject particularly numerous discussions at his time. 8. Since then it has become a cuite indispensable subject in schools of higher learning.

IV. Translate these groups of words, paying attentions to nouns in the function of an attribute.

The gravity distribution, the displacement phase angle, the modem physics development, the universal gravitation law, the calculation process, the world science problems, the rest mass energy

V. Answer the questions on the text.

1. When and where was Isaac Newton born? 2. What did his family want him to become? 3. At what age was he sent to Cambridge? 4. Where did he take his degree? 5. What was he appointed after taking his degree? 6. What was his favourite study? 7. What was Newton’s discovery in the field of optics? 8. What laws did Newton discover?

WRITTEN PRACTICE

Make a written translation of this text.

Although a genius of science, Newton owed much to his predecessors (попередники). The year of his birth was the year of the death of Galileo. Galileo had founded the science of mechanics, and his application of the astronomical telescope (then recently invented) had been of the greatest help in the study of the heavens. Copernicus, Brahe and Kepler had overthrown the old conceptions of the earth as the centre of the universe.

Newton himself modestly said: «If I have seen farther than most men, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.»

While studying light, Newton invented the reflecting telescope. It was only an inch in diameter, and six inches long, but it magnified forty times and have a good view of the Jupiter’s moons.

He made a larger one. You can see it in the library of the Royal Society in London, and there you can read: «The first reflecting telescope, invented by Sir Isaac Newton, and made with his own hands.»

Section 3

Text 2. WORK AND ENERGY

Key terms: work, energy, rest mass energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, joule, kilojoule, megajoule, gigajoule

The term «work» has different meanings for different people. A student doing homework calls it work. The same student probably calls a game of tennis play. However, a physicist would say the student is doing very little work during homework, but a great deal of work playing tennis. The physicist would be using the scientific definition of «work».

These conditions are necessary before the work is done:

• A force must be exerted on an object.

• The object must be displaced by the force.

• At least part of the force must be in the same direction as the displacement. In physics, therefore, the term «work» is restricted to activities involving both a force and a displacement.

c) A rocket blasting off from the launch pad

fig. 2. a) Shows the Work is Being Done.

b) Shows the Work is not Being Done.

In (a), there is the force holding the parcel up, but no displacement. In (b), the force is perpendicular to displacement.

In (c), a space capsule is coasting with its engines off far out in the space where the forces of gravity and friction are negligible. Although there is a displacement, there is no force, and so there is no work.

Work is the product of the applied force and the displacement the object moves in the direction of the force. The larger the applied force and the farther the object moves in the direction of the force, the more work is being done. Since work is the product of applied force and displacement, the SI unit of work is the Newton metre Nxm. The newton metre has been named the joule in honour of the British physicist James Prescott Joule (1818-1889). One joule is the work done when a force of one newton is applied through a displacement of one metre in the direction of the force. Thus 1 J = Nxm.

Energy is the ability to do work. It has several key characteristics.

• Energy is transferred from one object to another whenever work is done.

• Energy comes in many forms that are interchangeable.

• Energy can be stored and used at a later time to do work.

• Energy is always conserved.

Energy can be transferred, changed from one form to another, or stored; but the total energy, including heat, stays the same.

There are three basic forms of energy: rest mass energy, potential energy and kinetic energy.

Rest mass energy is the total energy an object has because of its mass. Einstein’s Relativity Theory indicated that mass is a form of energy. The total energy of a mass at rest is given by the equation E = me2 ,where c is the speed of light. Einstein predicted that mass can be converted to energy and energy to mass.

Potential energy is the energy that can be stored in an object or system of objects. The four main forms of potential energy are: chemical energy, nuclear energy, gravitational energy and elastic energy.

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The five main forms of kinetic energy are: bulk kinetic energy, sound energy, thermal energy, radiant energy and electric energy.

Because energy is the ability to do work, it has the same unit as work, the joule (J). The joule is a very small amount of energy, so several larger units are often used. These are the kilojoule, the megajoule and gigajoule.

Vocabulary notes

at least принаймні, щонайменше

restrict, v обмежувати

product, n добуток

store, v зберігати, накопичувати

bulk, n об’єм, основна маса (частина)

TASKS

Answer the questions.

1. What three conditions are necessary before work is done? 2.What is the definition of the joule? 3. What is energy? 4. What basic kinds of energy do you know? 5. What is potential energy? 6. What are the four forms of potential energy? Give an example of each. 7. What is kinetic energy? Name its five forms and give an example of each. 8. Eight examples of energy are listed below. Define which form(s) of energy each has:

a) a moving hockey puck (шайба); b) electrons flowing along a conductor; c) a bag of peanuts; d) a uranium bundle: e) a flashlight bulb that is turned on; f) a plucked guitar string; g) a stone placed on a post; h) a stationary pebble on the beach.

MULTIPLE CHOICE

Each of the following statements is followed by five responses. Choose the correct response in each case.

1. In which of the following cases is work not being done?

• holding a turkey at chest height:

• pushing a bicycle 0.2 km [E];

• walking down a flight of stairs;

• playing a violin solo;

• coasting to a stop on ice skates.

2. If the speed of an object is quadrupled and the mass decreased by a factor of three, by what factor does the kinetic energy change?

a) 4/3; b) 8/3; c) 16/3; d) 12; e) 36.

3. Tom and Jerry have the same mass and are riding on identical bicycles. Tom has a speed of 8 m/s and Jerry a speed of 2 m/s. What is the ratio of Tom’s kinetic energy to Jerry’s kinetic energy?

a) 16:1; b) 2:1; c) 8:1; d) 1:1; e) 4:1;

APPLICATIONS

1. Use units analysis to express the joule in SI base units.

2. Does the Earth do any work on a satellite in a circular object? Explain. (Hint: compare the direction of the applied force with the motion).

3. You have two elastic springs. Spring A is stiffer than spring B Compare the work:

• if both springs are stretched the same amount;

• if both springs are stretched by the same force.

4. Three students of equal mass on the same hike encounter a log across their path. Student A walks around it, student B steps over it, student C steps up on it and down on the other side. Compare the work done by each student.

5. Which of the following factors affect the work done and the power needed to lift a heavy suitcase onto a high bed? Explain each answer.

a) the height of the bed; b) the mass of the suitcase; c) whether the room is on the Earth or on the moon; d) whether the suitcase is lifted straight up or on a diagonal; e) the time taken to lift the suitcase.

6. Uranium is used in a nuclear fission power plant to make steam run a steam turbine that turns an electric generator. You use this electric supply when you run an electric hair dryer. List, in order, all the energy transformations that take place.

UNIT 9

Grammar: 1. The Infinitive, its forms and functions

Texts: 1. Great Britain

2. Radiation

Section 1

GRAMMAR EXERCISES

I. Make up suitable sentences according to the pattern and translate them,

The Subject:

Pattern 1: It was difficult...

It was difficult to explain it.

Було важко пояснити це.

... to believe his words.

... to raise this question.

... to get letters.

... to drive a car in the city. ... to look through my work ... to give advice.

It’s late ...

It’s always easy ...

It was hard ...

Why is it so important ...

It gives him pleasure ...

It’s hot ...

The Predicative:

Pattern 2: Our task was ...

Our task was to get information.

Нашим завданням було отримати інформацію.

... to let her know about it. ... to explain how to do it. ... to attend the conference. ... to learn the whole truth. ... to get her on the phone.

My job then was ...

His next step was ...

All you have to do is ...

The only thing I want is

The first thing do is ...

An Object:

Pattern 3: I was happy ...

I was happy to win this prize.

Я був щасливий, що виграв цей приз.

The students of our group ... to do this work in time, agreed ...We didn’t know how ... ... to attract everybody’sattention.

We were lucky not... ... to switch off the light.

He went to bed forgetting to miss the train.

He hates ... ... to take part in the work of an English chib.

The boy promised ... ... to help me.

An Attribute:

Pattern 4: There was no need ...

There was no need to trouble him.

He було потреби його турбувати-

Не had little ... ... to look after.

I have nothing ... ... to lose.

He had good news ... ... to be proud of.

You will need somebody to say.

She had nothing ... ... to help you with it.

He has a family ... ... to think over.

An Adverbial Modifier of Purpose,

Pattern 5: I took a taxi...

I took a taxi to catch the train.

Я поїхав на таксі, щоб встигнути на поїзд.

Не will have to work hard (in order) to get the best

results.

The car is waiting ... ... to catch up with the

group

I turned off the radio not to disturb him while

he was sleeping.

We stopped ... ... to take you to the station.

.. follow the instructions ... to let them pass.

carefully.

An Adverbial Modifier of Result:

Pattern 6: He seemed too tired...

He was too tired to speak.

Він був надто втомленим, щоб могти розмовляти (він був таким втомленим, що не міг розмовляти.

The boys were ...not to want to go anywhere,

too frightened ...

The roads were ... to be afraid of me. good enough...

The night was too hot to sleep inside the house.

He knew me too well to speak.

He is too young ... ... to drive fast.

II. Define functions of the Infinitive in these sentences and translate them.

To understand something of the properties of electrons it is necessary to know a little about the atomic structure of matter. 2. The number of electrons must always equal the number of protons to keep the atom electrically neutral. 3. To help navigation at sea, small radars are used on small commercial ships. 4. Our scientists had to solve many problems to study the mystery of the atom. 5. Years ago, scientists tried to explain how electricity passed through space. 6. Ultrasonics is a very useful instrument to be used in industry, science and medicine. 7. Optical instruments are necessary to study the far off stars. 8. These experiments serve to confirm Gilbert’s conclusion that there are two kinds of electric charge.

Section 2