31. Euphemism

Definition:

The term ‘euphemism’ is used to refer to the literary practice of using a comparatively milder or less abrasive form of a negative description instead of its original, unsympathetic form. This device is used when writing about matters such as sex, violence, death, crimes and things "embarrassing". The purpose of euphemisms is to substitute unpleasant and severe words with more genteel ones in order to mask the harshness.. The use of euphemisms is sometimes manipulated to lend a touch of exaggeration or irony in satirical writing.

Example:

Using “to put out to pasture” when one implies retiring a person because they are too old to be effective.

Below are some more examples of Euphemisms

Downsizing - This is used when a company fires or lays off a larger number of employees

Friendly fire - This is used by the military when soldiers are accidentally killed by other soldiers on the same side.

Tipsy - This is a soft way to say that someone has had to much to drink.

Golden years - This is used to describe the later period of life when someone is of old age.

Gone to heaven - This is a polite way to say that someone is dead.

Enhanced interrogation - This is modern euphemism to minimize what by many people would be viewed as torture.

euphemism figure of speech intended to hide the real nature of s.th. unpleasant or taboo by using a mild or indirect expression Euphemismus

(Beschönigung) “He passed away” for “he died”

“... the underprivileged” for “... the poor”

32-33.

32. Pun. Its varieties and stylistic functions.

33. Zeugma. Its varieties and stylistic functions.

Zeugma and pun are stylistic devices based on polysemantic effect, on interaction of primary and derivative meaning.

Zeugma is a simultaneous realization of 2 meanings of one polysemantic word within the same context. - The boys took their places and their books. - Jane wasn’t a narrow woman in mind and body. She took her breakfast and her bath. Here we feel the blending of 2 or more semantically incompatible word-groups having an identical lexical item make a single construction in which this item is used only once. The resulting effect is strongly humorous/ironical. The same effect is achieved when a word upon which this trope is based is repeated.

Pun — the use of a word in such a manner as to bring out different meanings or applications, or the use of words alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning, often with humorous intent. It can be also called a play of words. Puns are often used in riddles and joke. - What is the difference between a schoolmaster engine driver (one trains the mind and the other minds the train). - She was too beautiful for wards. The difference between them is very slight. The only reliable distinguishing feature between pun and zeugma is a structural one: zeugma is a structure with a verb, in which one element is central. Pun is more independent, but it must be penned by a context.

34. Decomposition of set phrases. Its stylistic effects. DECOMPOSITION OF A SET PHRASE is alike to pun (play upon words), it is the interplay between the literal meaning and the phraseological meaning (i.e. figurative):  - I'm eating my heart out.  - It's evidently a diet that agrees with you. You are growing fat on it. (Maugham)