30. Classification of phraseological units

Phraseological units are characterised by figurativeness, emotional and stylistic expressiveness. The grouping should not be regarded as classification. V.V. Vinogradov suggests three types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its expressiveness and emotional properties (Ex.: to cut off with a shilling - лишить наследства, to talk through one's hat - говорить вздор, a fishy story – выдумка).

Phraseological unities are more numerous and clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based upon the image created by the whole. (Ex.: to stick (to stand) to one's guns, i.e. "refuse to change one's statements or opinions in the face of opposition", implying courage and integrity). Phraseological unities have the possibility of synonymic substitution, which can only be very limited. Some of them are easily translated and even international, e.g. to know the way the wind is blowing, as busy as a bee.

Phraseological combinations are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively: to meet a demand, requirement, necessity - удовлетворить требования, потребность, необходимость; to break a promise, an agreement, a rule - нарушить обещание, соглашение, правило.

31. Features of set expressions

Set expressions have their own specific features, which enhance their stability and cohesion. These are their euphonic, imaginative and connotative qualities. Many set expressions are distinctly rhythmical, contain alliteration, rhyme, imagery, contrast. All these qualities ensure the strongest possible contact between the elements. These euphonic and connotative qualities prevent substitution for another purely linguistic reason — any substitution would destroy the euphonic effect.

Rhyme is also characteristic of set expressions: by hook or by crook - by any method, right or wrong. This capacity of developing an undivided transferred meaning is a feature that makes set expressions similar to words.

Semantic stylistic features contracting set expressions into units of fixed context are contrast, metaphor and synonymy. Ex.: a pack of lies (metaphor), proud and haughty (synonymy).

32. NON-CLASSICAL SOURCES OF LOANWORDS

English has borrowed a few words from West African languages, mostly via Portuguese and Spanish, e. g. banana and yam, which first appeared towards the end of the 16th century. Likewise, voodoo, with its variant hoodoo, which came in through American English, is of African origin. Gorilla is apparently African in origin. More recent borrowings from this source include: chimpanzee, gnu, safari, zebra.

Most of the borrowings have been made in modern times. Polka came via French in the 19^th century from Czech. Mammoth was borrowed in the 18^th century directly from Russian. Other more recent borrowings from Russian have not become completely naturalized: bolshevik, czar, glasnost, intelligentsia (ultimately from Latin), perestroika, tundra, vodka. From Hungarian, English has borrowed directly goulash and paprika; while coach came via French from Hungarian kosci. Turkish words in English include: shish-kebab.

From Native American languages have come: moccasin, toboggan, tomahawk, skunk. And many American places have their origin in these languages, e. g. Chicago, Michigan, Saratoga