if you are still finding the text difficult, leave it for 24 hours and come back to it. You may find that a second or third reading will give you a better understanding of the text.

2.2 Writing a summary of an article

WHAT IS A SUMMARY?

A summary restates the main ideas of an author in your own words. It keeps the essential information from the original passage while eliminating most supporting details, such as the examples and illustrations. A good summary makes the author's ideas clear, perhaps even clearer than in the original.

What is the difference between an abridgement, a paraphrase, and a summary?

An abridgement is a shortened form of a work that to a great extent keeps the language of the original. Although an editor has made decisions about which words or passages to delete, the article or book is presented as the work of the original author.

A paraphrase differs from an abridgement in that it is written in language different from the original. It follows the order of the original text and, unlike a summary, it recasts everything, not just the main ideas. It may be shorter than the original, but it could be longer.

A summary is generally much shorter than the original text. It includes only key ideas and omits the details. It may or may not follow the order of the original. Because you must decide how all of the ideas fit together, writing a summary requires more skill than writing a paraphrase. A paraphrase is a list of sentences; a summary is a group of connected sentences revealing how the author's ideas are related.

HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY

Preview the article to get an idea of what it is about. Read the title, headings, first paragraph, first sentence of the following paragraphs, and the last paragraph.

Read carefully. Photocopy the article so that you can underline or highlight the main ideas. Be selective. Mark only the main ideas. (Try to limit yourself to no more than 20% of the original.) Write the main idea of each paragraph in the margin and also make notes about the purpose of the paragraph (For example, does it provide examples of a main point or serve as a transition to another point?)

Express in one sentence the thesis or main idea of the article. A good model for your first sentence is to include the author's name, the title, and the thesis. In "Essays to Read at the Beach," Frances Payne (discusses, states, argues). . . THESIS OF THE ARTICLE.

Write your first draft, using what you have underlined and written. You can keep this draft simple by following the order of ideas in the original.

Remind the reader several times that you are summarizing another author's work: "Payne also notes that . . ."

Write a shorter version of your first draft, this time imposing your own order on the ideas and making decisions about what information is essential.

Keep quotations short. If your assignment permits you to quote directly, it's usually better not to quote entire sentences. Summarize a portion of the quotation and quote only the most important words.

Read your summary carefully to make sure that the meaning of the original article would be clear to someone who has not read it.

TIP: If you are having trouble understanding an article, either because its ideas are complex or because its organization is confusing, try writing a short paraphrase of each paragraph. The meaning will probably be clearer after you have worked your way through the article, so you could then write a shorter version of your paraphrase, trying to eliminate those ideas that don't seem essential. At this point you should be ready to write a summary, an even shorter version of your paraphrase that suggests your understanding of the way the ideas fit together.

WHAT IS A SUMMARY REPORT?

A summary report presents information from several sources on a topic, generally without adding any of the writer's opinions. Your assignment may require you to include your opinion. If you are not sure, ask your professor.

If you don't have specific guidelines from your teacher on how to organize a summary report, you could try this format:

1. short introductory paragraph that expresses a theme that somehow ties the essays together

2. summary of first article

3. transition to next article

4. summary of second article, etc.

5. a conclusion that restates the theme you set up in the first paragraph.

WHAT IS A SUMMARY-RESPONSE ESSAY?

A summary does not include your opinion; a summary-response essay requires you to respond to the ideas in an essay and come up with a thesis that expresses your opinion. Summary is one component of that sort of paper, not the entire paper.

If you don't have specific guidelines from your teacher on how to organize a summary- response paper, you could try this format:

1. An introductory paragraph which includes one or two sentences stating the author's name, the title of the essay, and the essay's thesis; a sentence or two summing up your response, which you might think of as raising the points you want to make about the author's thesis

2. A paragraph or two summarizing the essay

3. A paragraph or two exploring your thoughts about the article.

TIP: Usually you aren't required to respond to every point made by the author. You can address the main argument and respond to several secondary ideas, perhaps adding your examples or drawing connections between the author's ideas and your own experiences.

TIP: Another way to organize the paper would be to summarize one main point made in the original article, respond to it, and then summarize another point and respond to that one.

2.3 Вопросы для самоконтроля

1. Why do you need effective reading strategies?

2. What is skimming?

3. What are the two basic skim-reading techniques?

4. What is scanning?

5. What are the main scanning steps?

6. What are the two approaches to understand what you are reading?

7. What is the essence of SQ3R technique?

8. What is an abridgement?

9. What is a paraphrase?

10. What is a summary?

11. What is a summary report?

12. What is a summary essay?

2.4 Задания для практики

Exercise 1.

Read the original text and study the example of the summary given below

Original Article: Bats

In the distant past, many people thought bats had magical powers, but times have changed. Today, many people believe that bats are rodents, that they cannot see, and that they are more likely than other animals to carry rabies. All of these beliefs are mistaken. Bats are not rodents, are not blind, and are no more likely than dogs and cats to transmit rabies. Bats, in fact, are among the least understood and least appreciated of animals.

Bats are not rodents with wings, contrary to popular belief. Like all rodents, bats are mammals, but they have a skeleton similar to the human skeleton. The bones in bat wings are much like those in arms and the human hand, with a thumb and four fingers. In bats, the bones of the arms and the four fingers of the hands are very long. This bone structure helps support the web of skin that stretches from the body to the ends of the fingers to form wings.

Although bats cannot see colors, they have good vision in both dim and bright light. Since most bats stay in darkness during the day and do their feeding at night, they do not use their vision to maneuver in the dark but use a process called echolocation. This process enables bats to emit sounds from their mouths that bounce off objects and allow them to avoid the objects when flying. They use this system to locate flying insects to feed on as well. Typically, insect-eating bats emerge at dusk and fly to streams or ponds where they feed. They catch the insects on their wingtip or tail membrane and fling them into their mouths while flying.

There are about 1,000 species of bat, ranging in size from the bumblebee bat, which is about an inch long, to the flying fox, which is sixteen inches long and has a wingspan of five feet. Each type of bat has a specialized diet. For seventy percent of bats, the diet is insects. Other types of bats feed on flowers, pollen, nectar, and fruit or on small animals such as birds, mice, lizards, and frogs.

One species of bat feeds on the blood of large mammals. This is the common vampire bat, which lives only in Latin America and is probably best known for feeding on the blood of cattle. Unfortunately, in an attempt to control vampire bat populations, farmers have unintentionally killed thousands of beneficial fruit-and insect-eating bats as well.

Bats, in fact, perform a number of valuable functions. Their greatest economic value is in eliminating insect pests. Insect- eating bats can catch six hundred mosquitoes in an hour and eat half their body weight in insects every night. In many tropical rain forests, fruit- eating bats are the main means of spreading the seeds of tropical fruits. Nectar-feeding bats pollinate a number of tropical plants. If it were not for bats, we might not have peaches, bananas, mangoes, guavas, figs, or dates.

Today, the survival of many bat species is uncertain. Sixty percent of bats do not survive past infancy. Some are killed by predators such as owls, hawks, snakes and other meat-eating creatures, but most are victims of pesticides and other human intrusions. In Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, where there were once eight million bats, there are now a quarter million. At Eagle Creek, Arizona, the bat population dropped from thirty million to thirty thousand in six years.

Bats often have been burdened with a bad reputation, perhaps because they are not the warm, cuddly sort of animal we love to love. However, their unusual physical features should not lead us to overestimate their harm or to underestimate their value.

Exercise 2.

Read the text below and write the summary according to the example given above.

Demographic Transition

Historically, as countries have developed industrially, they have undergone declines in death rates followed by declines in birth rates. Over time they have tended to move from rapid increases in population to slower increases, then to zero growth and finally to population decreases. The model which demographers use to help explain these changes in population growth is known as the demographic transition model. In order to properly appreciate the demographic transition model, it is necessary to understand two basic concepts: the crude* birth rate (CBR) and the crude death rate (CDR). The CBR is determined by taking the number of births in a country in a given year and dividing it by the total population of the country and then multiplying the answer by one thousand. So, for example, the CBR of the United States in 2004 was 14 (in other words, there were 14 births per thousand living people in that year). CDR is worked out in a similar way. The CDR for the United States in 2004 was 8 per thousand.

The first stage of the demographic transition model portrays a preindustrial era when both the birth rate and the death rate were high. Typically, women gave birth to a large number of babies. This was partly due to cultural and religious pressures but also because families required a large number of children, since often many didn't survive into adulthood due to the harsh living conditions. Furthermore, children were needed to help adults work the land or perform other chores. The death rate was high due to the high incidence of diseases and famine and also because of poor hygiene. Total population tended to fluctuate due to occasional epidemics, but overall there was only a very gradual long-term increase during this stage.

During the second stage, improvements in hygiene, medical care, and food production led to a decrease in the death rate in newly industrializing regions of Western Europe. However, birth rates remained high due to tradition and because many people were involved in agrarian occupations. The combination of a lowered CDR and a stable CBR led to dramatic increases in population starting at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

In stage three, birth rates also began to fall. In cities there was less incentive to produce large numbers of children, since city dwellers no longer worked the land, and the cost of raising children in an urban environment was greater than in rural districts. Furthermore, more children survived into adulthood due to improved living conditions. These economic pressures led to a lower CBR and over time the numbers of people being born started to approximate the numbers dying.

The final stage, which some demographers have called the postindustrial stage, occurs when birth rates and death rates are about equal. In this case there is zero natural population growth. Over time the birth rate may fall below the death rate, and without immigration the total population may slowly decrease. By the early twenty-first century, several European countries were experiencing population declines due to the CDR outstripping the CBR. For example, in Italy in 2004 there were about 9 births per thousand against 10 deaths per thousand.

The demographic transition took about 200 years to complete in Europe. Many developing countries are still in stage two of the demographic transition model: births far outstrip deaths. In these countries, CDR has declined due to improvements in sanitation and increases in food productivity, but the birth rate has still not adjusted downward to the new realities of improved living conditions. This imbalance of births over deaths in the developing world is the fundamental reason for the dramatic population explosion in the latter half of the twentieth century. However, population statistics indicate that in many less developed countries the CBRs have begun to decline over recent decades, giving rise to optimism in some quarters about future trends. The rapid industrialization of many parts of the developing world has meant that these countries have reached stage three of the model much faster than countries in the developed world did during the nineteenth century. This fact has led many demographers to predict that world population will reach an equilibrium level sooner and at a lower total than more pessimistic earlier predictions.

2.5 Глоссарий по теме 2

skimming- is to glance through a text for main ideas

scanning – is to look for specific information in a text.

abridgement - is a shortened form of a work that to a great extent keeps the language of the original.

paraphrase - is written in language different from the original. It follows the order of the original text and, unlike a summary, it recasts everything, not just the main ideas. It may be shorter than the original, but it could be longer.

summary - is generally much shorter than the original text. It includes only key ideas and omits the details. It may or may not follow the order of the original.

summary report – presents information from several sources on a topic

summary-response essay – requires to respond to the ideas in an essay and come up with a thesis that expresses your opinion

2.6 Использованные информационные ресурсы.

1. Shrodes C., Shugrue M., Conscious Reader, The Brief Edition: Longman; 1 edition, 2007

2. Wallace Michael J., Study Skills in English. A course in reading skills for academic purposes:  Cambridge University Press, 2004

3. Wilhoit S., Brief Guide to Writing from Readings, A (5th Edition): Longman; 5 edition, 2009

4. http://www.howtolearn.com/2013/02/skimming-and-scanning-two-important-strategies-for-speeding-up-your-reading/print/

5. http://academics.smcvt.edu/cbauer-ramazani/AEP/EN104/summary.htm

Тема 3 Critical reading and writing «Чтение научного текста с целью извлечения информации по теме научного исследования»

Аннотация: Данная тема формирует умение определять структуру организации научного текста по специальности (просмотровое, поисковое чтение), подвергать критической оценке точку зрения автора и читать аутентичную литературу по специальности с кратким извлечением информации в виде выводов и заключений.

Ключевые слова: critical, critical thinking, critical reading, synthesis, summary, prejudices, biased, inferences, analyze

Методические рекомендации по изучению темы:

• Тема содержит теоретический материал по методике анализа научного текста с целью извлечения информации по теме научного исследования

• После изучения теоретического материала необходимо ответить на вопросы и выполнить задания для практики, которые помогут закрепить изученный материал.

3.1 Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing

The word critical here has a neutral meaning. It doesn't mean taking a negative view or finding fault, as when someone criticizes another person for doing something wrong. Rather, critical here applies to a mental stance of examining ideas thoroughly and deeply, refusing to accept ideas merely because they seem sensible at first thought, and tolerating questions that often lack definitive answers.

CRITICAL THINKING

Critical thinking means taking control of your conscious thought processes. If you don't take control of those processes, you risk being con­trolled by the ideas of others.

To engage in CRITICAL THINKING, you become fully aware of an idea or an action, reflect on it, and ultimately react to it. Actually, you already engage in this process numerous times every day. For example, you're thinking criti­cally when you meet someone new and decide whether you like the person; when you read a book and form an opinion of it based on reasonable analy­sis; or when you interview for a job and then evaluate its requirements and your ability to fulfill them.

The steps in the critical thinking process are somewhat fluid, just as are the steps in the WRITING PROCESS. Expect sometimes to combine steps, reverse their order, and return to parts of the process you thought you had completed.

Remember that synthesis and evaluation are two different mental activities: Synthesis calls for making connections; evaluation calls for making judgments.

STEPS IN THE CRITICAL THINKING PROCESS

Summarize. Extract and restate the material's main message or central point. Use only what you see on the page. Add nothing.

Analyze. Examine the material by breaking it into its component parts. By seeing each part of the whole as a distinct unit, you discover how the parts interrelate. Consider the line of reasoning as shown by the EVIDENCE offered and logic used. Read "between the lines" to draw INFERENCES, gaining information that's implied but not stated. When reading or listening, notice how the reading or speaking style and the choice of words work together to create a TONE.

Synthesize. Pull together what you've summarized and analyzed by connecting it to your own experiences, such as reading, talking with others, watching television and films, using the Internet, and so on. In this way, you create a new whole that reflects your newly acquired knowledge and insights combined with your prior knowledge.

Evaluate. Judge the quality of the material now that you've become informed through the activities of SUMMARY, ANALYSIS, and SYNTHESIS. Resist the very common urge to evaluate before you summarize, analyze, and synthesize.

CRITICAL READING

Reading is an active process—a dynamic, meaning-making interaction between the page and your brain. Understanding the reading process helps people become critical thinkers.

Making predictions is a major activity in the reading process. Your mind is constantly guessing what's coming next. When it sees what comes next, it either confirms or revises its prediction and moves on. For example, suppose you're glancing through a magazine and come upon the title "The Heart­beat." Your mind begins guessing: Is this a love story? Is this about how the heart pumps blood? Maybe, you say to yourself, it's a story about someone who had a heart attack. Then, as you read the first few sentences, your mind confirms which guess was correct. If you see words like electrical impulse, muscle fibers, and contraction, you know instantly that you're in the realm of physiology. In a few more sentences, you narrow your prediction to either "the heart as pump" or "the heart suffering an attack."

To make predictions efficiently, consciously decide your purpose for reading the material. People generally read for two reasons—for relaxation or for learning. Reading a popular novel helps you relax. Reading for college courses calls for you to understand material and remember it. When you read to learn, you usually have to reread. One encounter with new material is rarely enough to understand it fully.

The speed at which you read depends on your purpose for reading. When you're hunting for a particular fact, you can skim the page until you come to what you want. When you read about a subject you know well, you might read somewhat rapidly, slowing down when you come to new material. When you're unfamiliar with the subject, you need to work slowly because your mind needs time to absorb the new material.

STEPS IN THE READING PROCESS

1. Reading for literal meaning: Read "on the lines" to see what's stated

2. Reading to draw inferences: Read "between the lines" to see what's not stated but implied.

3.Reading to evaluate: Read "beyond the lines" to form your own opinion about the material.

Reading for literal meaning

Reading for literal meaning is reading for comprehension. Your goal is to discover the main ideas, the supporting details, or, in a work of fiction, the central details of plot and character.

Reading for literal meaning is not as easy as it might sound. When you come across a new concept, think it through. Rushing through material to "cover" it rather than to understand it takes more time in the end. If the author's writing style is complex, "unpack" the sentences: Break them into smaller units or reword them in a simpler style.

Reading to draw inferences

When you read for inferences, you're reading to understand what's suggested or implied but not stated. This is similar to the kind of critical thinking discussed in 5b. Often, you need to infer the author's PURPOSE.

Drawing inferences during reading

■ Is the tone of the material appropriate?

■ Can I detect prejudice or bias in the material?

■ Is the separation of fact and opinion clear or muddy?

■ What is the writer's position, even if he or she doesn't come out and state it?

TONE

Tone in writing emerges from many aspects of what you write, but mostly from your word choice. Tone in writing is like tone in speaking: it can be formal, informal, pompous, sarcastic, and so on. If you read exclusively for literal meaning, you'll likely miss the tone and possibly the point of the whole piece.

For example, as a critical reader, be suspicious of a highly emotional tone in writing. If you find it, chances are the writer is trying to manipulate the audience. Resist this. Also as a writer, if you find your tone growing emotional, step back and rethink the situation. No matter what point you want to make, your chance of communicating successfully to an audience depends on your using a moderate, reasonable tone. For instance, the exaggerations below in the NO example (robbing treasures, politicians are murderers) might hint at the truth of a few cases, but they're too extreme to be taken seriously. The language of the YES version is far more likely to deliver its intended message.

NO Urban renewal must be stopped. Urban redevelopment is ruining this country, and money-hungry capitalists are robbing treasures from law-abiding citizens. Corrupt politicians are murderers, caring nothing about people being thrown out of their homes into the streets.

YES Urban renewal is revitalizing our cities, but it has caused some serious problems. While investors are trying to replace slums with decent housing, they must also remember that they're displacing people who don't want to leave their familiar neighborhoods. Surely, a cooperative effort between government and the private sector can lead to creative solutions.

PREJUDICE OR BIAS

For inferential reading, you want to detect prejudice or bias. These concepts go further than the idea that most writers try to influence readers to accept their points of view. When writing is distorted by hatred or dislike of individuals, groups of people, or ideas, you as a critical reader want to suspect the accuracy and fairness of the material. Prejudice and bias can be worded in positive language, but critical readers aren't deceived by such tactics. Similarly, writers can merely imply their prejudices and bias rather than state them outright. For example, suppose you read, "Poor people like living in crowded conditions because they're used to such surroundings" or "Women are so wonderfully nurturing that they can't succeed in business." As a critical reader, you will immediately detect the prejudice and bias. Always, therefore, question material that rests on a weak foundation of discrimination and narrow-mindedness.

FACT VERSUS OPINION

Another skill in reading inferentially is the ability to differentiate fact from opinion. Facts are statements that can be verified. Opinions are statements of personal beliefs. Facts can be verified by observation, research, or experimentation, but opinions are open to debate. A problem arises when a writer intentionally blurs the distinction between fact and opinion. Critical readers will know the difference.

For example, here are two statements: a fact and an opinion.

1. Women can never make good mathematicians.

2. Although fear of math isn't purely a female phenomenon, girls tend to drop out of math classes sooner than boys, and some adult women have an aversion to math and math-related activity that is akin to anxiety.

Reading inferentially, you can see that statement 1 is clearly an opinion. Is it worthy of consideration? Perhaps it could be open to debate, but the word never implies that the writer is unwilling to allow for even one exception. Conversely, statement 2 at least seems to be factual, though research would be necessary to confirm or deny the position.

As a reader, when you can "consider the source"—that is, find out who exactly made a statement—you hold an advantage in trying to distinguish between fact and opinion. For example, you would probably read an essay for or against capital punishment differently if you knew the writer was an inmate on death row rather than a non-inmate who wished to express an opinion. To illustrate, statement 1 is from a male Russian mathematician, as reported by David K. Shipler, a well-respected veteran reporter on Russian affairs for the New York Times. Statement 2 is from the book Overcoming Math Anxiety by Sheila Tobias, a university professor who has extensively studied why many people dislike math. Her credentials can help readers accept her statement as true. If, however, someone known for belittling women had made statement 2, a critical reader's reaction would be quite different.

3.2 Synthesis

Distinguishing between SUMMARY and SYNTHESIS is crucial in critical thinking, critical reading, and critical writing. Summary comes before synthesis in the critical thinking process. To summarize is to extract the main message or central point and restate it in a sentence or two. A summary doesn't include supporting evidence or details. It is the gist, the hub, the seed of what the author is saying. Also, it isn't your personal reaction to what the author says.

Synthesis comes after summary in the critical thinking process. To synthesize is to weave together material from several sources, including your personal prior knowledge, to create a new whole. Unsynthesized ideas and information are like separate spools of thread, neatly lined up, possibly coordinated but not integrated. Synthesized ideas and information are threads woven into a tapestry—a new whole that shows relationships.

People synthesize unconsciously all the time—interpreting and combining ideas from various sources to create new patterns. These thought processes are mirrored in the rhetorical strategies used in writing. To synthesize, consciously apply those strategies. For instance, compare ideas in sources, contrast ideas in sources, create definitions that combine and extend definitions in individual sources, apply examples or descriptions from one source to illustrate ideas in another, and find causes and effects described in one source that explain another.

Reading to evaluate

When you read to evaluate, you're judging the writer's work. Evaluative reading comes after you've summarized, analyzed, and synthesized the material. Reading "between the lines" is usually concerned with recognizing tone, detecting prejudice, and differentiating fact from opinion. Reading to evaluate "beyond the lines" requires an overall assessment of the soundness of the writer's reasoning, evidence, or observations and the fairness and perceptiveness the writer shows, from accuracy of word choice and tone to the writer's respect for the reader.

3.3 Вопросы для самоконтроля

1. What is critical?

2. What is the difference between the critical reading and critical thinking?

3. What are the steps in critical thinking?

4. What are the steps in critical reading?

5. Which aspects should be considered when reading to draw inferences?

6. Why is it important to use appropriate tone?

7. Why is it important for critical reading to distinguish between fact and opinion?

8. What is the difference between summary and synthesis?

9. What is the difference between “reading to evaluate” and “reading between the lines”?

3.4 Задания для практики

Exercise 1

Read the following passages; then (1) list all literal information, (2) list all implied information, and (3) list the opinions stated.

EXAMPLE The study found many complaints against the lawyers were not investigated, seemingly out of a "desire to avoid difficult cases."

Norman F. Dacey

Literal information: Few complaints against lawyers are investigated.

Implied information: The words difficult cases imply a cover-up: Lawyers, or others in power, hesitate to criticize lawyers for fear of being sued or for fear of a public outcry if the truth about abuses and errors were revealed.

Opinions: No opinions. It reports on a study.

A. It is the first of February, and everyone is talking about starlings. Starlings came to this country on a passenger liner from Europe. One hundred of them were deliberately released in Central Park, and from those hundred descended all of our countless millions of starlings today. According to Edwin Way Teale, "Their coming was the result of one man's fancy. That man was Eugene Schieffelin, a wealthy New York drug manufacturer. His curious hobby was the introduction into America of all the birds mentioned in William Shakespeare." The birds adapted to their new country splendidly.

Annie Dillard, "Terror at Tinker Creek"

B. In the misty past, before Bill Gates joined the company of the world's richest men, before the mass-marketed personal computer, before the metaphor of an information superhighway had been worn down to a cliche, I heard Roger Schank interviewed on National Public Radio. Then a computer science professor at Yale, Schank was already well known in artificial intelligence circles. Because those circles did not include me, a new programmer at Sperry Univac, I hadn't heard of him. Though I've forgotten the details of the conversation, I have never forgotten Schank's insistence that most people do not need to own computers.

That view, of course, has not prevailed. Either we own a personal computer and fret about upgrades, or we are scheming to own one and fret about the technical marvel yet to come that will render our purchase obsolete. Well, there are worse ways to spend money, I suppose. For all I know, even Schank owns a personal computer. They're fiendishly clever machines, after all, and they've helped keep the wolf from my door for a long time.

Paul De Palma

Exercise 2

Examine two different examples of synthesis, mind the differences. Their sources are the essay by Sydney J. Harris and the following excerpt from a long essay by Robert Lipsyte. (Lipsyte, a sports columnist for the New York Times, is writing in the spring of 1995, at the end of a nine- month US baseball strike. Lipsyte argues that commercial interests have invaded sports and, therefore, that sports no longer inspire loyalty, teach good sportsmanship, or provide young people with admirable role models.)

Sports Only Exercise Our Eyes

By Sydney J. Harris

Before I proceed a line further, let me make it clear that I enjoy physical exercise and sport as much as any man. I like to bat a baseball, dribble a basketball, kick a soccer ball and, most of all, swat a tennis ball. A man who scorned physical activity would hardly build a tennis court on his summerhouse grounds, or use it every day.

Having made this obeisance, let me now confess that I am puzzled and upset—and have been for many years—by the almost obsessive interest in sports taken by the average American male.

Athletics is one strand in life, and even the ancient Greek philosophers recognized its importance. But it is by no means the whole web, as it seems to be in our society. If American men are not talking business, they're talking sports, or they're not talking at all.

This strikes me as an enormously adolescent, not to say retarded, attitude on the part of presumed adults. Especially when most of the passion and enthusiasm center on professional teams, which bear no indigenous relation to the city they play for, and consist of mercenaries who will wear any town's insignia if the price is right.

Although I like to play, and sometimes like to watch, I cannot see what possible difference it makes which team beats which. The tactics are sometimes interesting, and certainly the prowess of the players deserves applause—but most men seem to use commercial sports as a kind of narcotic, shutting out reality, rather than heightening it.

There is nothing more boring, in my view, than a prolonged discussion by laymen of yesterday's game. These dreary conversations are a form of social alcoholism, enabling them to achieve a dubious rapport without ever once having to come to grips with a subject worthy of a grown man's concern.

It is easy to see the opiate quality of sports in our society when tens of millions of men will spend a splendid Saturday or Sunday fall afternoon sitting stupefied in front of the TV, watching a "big game," when they might be out exercising their own flaccid muscles and stimulating their lethargic corpuscles.

Ironically, our obsession with professional athletics not only makes us mentally limited and conversationally dull, it also keeps us physically inert—thus violating the very reason men began engaging in athletic competitions. Isn't it tempting to call this national malaise of "spectatoritis" childish? Except children have more sense, and would rather run out and play themselves.

The Emasculation of Sports

By Robert Lipsyte

Baseball has done us a favor. It's about time we understood that staged competitive sports events—and baseball can stand for all the games—are no longer the testing ground of our country's manhood and the theater of its once seemingly limitless energy and power.

As a mirror of our culture, sports now show us spoiled fools as role models, cities and colleges held hostage and games that exist only to hawk products.

The pathetic posturing of in-your-face macho has replaced a once self-confident masculinity.

SYNTHESIS BY COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Both Harris and Lipsyte criticize professional sports, but for different reasons. In part, Harris thinks that people who passively watch sports on TV and rarely exercise are ruining their health. Lipsyte sees a less obvious but potentially more sinister effect of sports: the destruction of traditional values by athletes who are puppets of "big business."

SYNTHESIS BY DEFINITION

The omission of women from each writer's discussion seems a very loud silence. Considered together, these essays define sports only in terms of males. Harris criticizes men for their inability to think and talk beyond sports and business, an insulting and exaggerated description made even less valid by the absence of women. Lipsyte, despite the numbers of women excelling both in team and individual sports, claims that sports have lost a "once self-confident masculinity." An extended defini¬tion would include women, even though they might prefer to avoid the negative portraits of Harris and Lipsyte.

Exercise 3

Write a synthesis based on the article given below and piece of a lecture on the same issue.

Productivity and Rewards

An important management principle is that when behavior is rewarded, it tends to be repeated. It follows that in many business enterprises, the approach to getting employees to work hard or improve productivity is to reward them with money or company stock. In addition, some enterprises use other forms of compensation such as special privileges or perhaps promotion or job reassignments or even company-paid luxury vacations and other bonuses in kind. All such rewards are usually tied in to some index of performance, which precisely calculates the relative amount of increased productivity.

Whatever the type of reward given, managerial consultants point out that the promise of such incentives improves employee attitudes, motivation, and productivity. Typical business handbooks describing compensation methods advocate giving the greatest rewards to those who perform the best. For example, a well-known academic text on incentives points out that "the closer the link between job performance and rewards, the greater the motivational effect."

Advocates of improving productivity through rewards tacitly accept that people are rather like physical bodies that require the application of some external motivating force to be set in motion. Furthermore, they argue that any such incentives must have a high perceived value to the employee and must also be perceived as within the reach of that person. If the productivity goal appears beyond the reach of the person striving for the reward, then the motivational effect will be lower and productivity may decline. But if the reward system is correctly structured, productivity experts argue, it is possible to persuade people to achieve remarkable results.

Productivity and Rewards

Today I wanted to question the idea that rewards increase productivity in the workplace. Now, does this approach really work? Well, when people who have experienced a reward system were asked, we found they didn't like it. Most people, it seems, want to be paid, not encouraged through incentives. People want to be given respect for working extra hard.

In fact, I know of no controlled study that has genuinely shown a long-term improvement in work as a result of any productivity reward scheme. On the contrary, there are many studies that show productivity rewards are even counterproductive. Rewards make for less productivity rather than more.

So, why might this be true? Well, in fact, rewards actually punish. Yeah. If we compensate people for high productivity, they may perceive this as being controlled. People understand they're being manipulated and don't like it. But more importantly, people don't necessarily get the expected rewards. So the disappointment for not being rewarded is sort of the same as being punished. Think about it. The more desirable the reward you expect, the more disappointing it is if you fail to get it. Right?

Productivity schemes might even reduce the amount and quality of work. The workers' relationship with the supervisor could be damaged. Instead of trying to work collaboratively with the supervisor, an employee might conceal problems. For example, let's say you had a problem. You might be less likely to ask for help from a supervisor who can withhold rewards. To avoid a negative rating, you keep quiet. Can you see why this would tend to reduce performance rather than improve it?

3.5 Глоссарий по теме 3

analysis- analysis involves breaking down an idea and working out the meaning of the individual parts and how they relate to the whole

argument-in most college writing, you are making some type of argu­ments) and presenting a conclusion about a topic using reason and evidence to convince your readers of your point. Arguments in writing can be casual and entertaining (such as arguing for the best place in town to go for a first date), or they can be more formal and structured (such as arguing for the need for a new science building on your campus).

assumptions- an assumption is a belief or claim that you take for granted or that society, particular people, or an author you are reading takes for granted without providing or asking for evidence or proof to support the idea.

bias- bias is a particular viewpoint that you or an author has about an idea or a topic. All ideas or opinions reflect a bias

conclusion- a conclusion is the end result of an argument. It is the main point you make in your paper and should be the logical result of the reasons you provide to support your argument

evaluation- evaluation is looking at the strength of your reasoning, sup­port, and conclusions (or those of another writer) and how well those ideas are developed and explained

imply/implication- to imply means to hint that something is so, to say it indirectly

inference- inference involves tapping into your ability to read between the lines and figure out, or infer, what someone means based on clues in what they say or write.

interpretation- interpretation involves decoding an idea so you understand its meaning.

opinion- your opinion is what you (or another writer) believe about an idea, question, or topic. Opinion involves thinking about an idea or question and coming to your own conclusions about it. An opinion is based on weighing information and deciding where you stand on a question.

point of view- point of view in critical thinking refers to the perspective you are coming from in your reasoning and writing (or the perspective of the author you are reading).

purpose- the term purpose refers to the reason you are writing a piece in the first place. sometimes the purpose of your writing is directly stated, as in a thesis statement, and sometimes it is implied by the arguments and reasons you provide throughout your writing.

synthesis- synthesis involves pulling together your ideas, and sometimes the ideas of others, in order to make or support an argument. Often, in writing, synthesis involves pulling together ideas from different authors that connect on a particular subject or argument to give a bigger picture.

3.6 Использованные информационные ресурсы.

1. George D., Reading Culture: Contexts for Critical Reading and Writing (7th Edition): Longman; 7 edition, 2009

2. Greene S., Lidinsky A. From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Text and Reader with 2009 MLA and 2010 APA Updates : Bedford/St. Martin's; First Edition edition, 2010

3. http://newsletter.stc-carolina.org/

4. http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/reading-and-researching/critical-reading

5. http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading_thinking.htm

Тема 4. Writing an academic essay «Подготовка к написанию научного выступления»

Аннотация: Данная тема содержит методические рекомендации, позволяющие делать обзор литературы по специальности, развивает умения выбирать адекватные подходы к работе с научной литературой. Формирует умение составлять теоретические и практические разделы по специальности на основе извлеченной информации (написание эссе).

Ключевые слова: academic essay, outline, thesis statement, body paragraphs, cohesive markers, narrative essay, descriptive essay, expository essay, argumentative essay.

Методические рекомендации по изучению темы.

• Тема содержит теоретический материал по методике написания эссе на основе извлеченной информации по теме научного исследования

• После изучения теоретического материала необходимо ответить на вопросы и выполнить задания для практики, которые помогут закрепить изученный материал.

4.1. Structure of academic essay

An essay can have many purposes, but the basic structure is the same no matter what. You may be writing an essay to argue for a particular point of view or to explain the steps necessary to complete a task.

Either way, your essay will have the same basic format.

If you follow a few simple steps, you will find that the essay almost writes itself. You will be responsible only for supplying ideas, which are the important part of the essay anyway.

These simple steps will guide you through the essay writing process:

• Decide on your topic.

Topic Has Been Assigned

You may have no choice as to your topic. If this is the case, you still may not be ready to jump to the next step.

Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce. Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview, then you are probably ready to move to the next step. If it should be a specific analysis, make sure your topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a narrower subtopic to discuss.

For example, the topic "KENYA" is a general one. If your objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If your objective is to write a specific analysis, this topic is too general. You must narrow it to something like "Politics in Kenya" or "Kenya's Culture."

Once you have determined that your topic will be suitable, you can move on.

• Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.

Organize Your Ideas

The purpose of an outline or diagram is to put your ideas about the topic on paper, in a moderately organized format. The structure you create here may still change before the essay is complete, so don't agonize over this.

Decide whether you prefer the cut-and-dried structure of an outline or a more flowing structure. If you start one or the other and decide it isn't working for you, you can always switch later.

Diagram

1. Begin your diagram with a circle or a horizontal line or whatever shape you prefer in the middle of the page.

2. Inside the shape or on the line, write your topic.

3. From your center shape or line, draw three or four lines out into the page. Be sure to spread them out.

4. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page.

5. In each shape or on each line, write the main ideas that you have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make.

• If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments.

• If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the steps that should be followed.

You will probably need to group these into categories.

• If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using Beginning, Middle, and End.

• If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major categories into which your information can be divided.

6. From each of your main ideas, draw three or four lines out into the page.

7. At the end of each of these lines, draw another circle or horizontal line or whatever you drew in the center of the page.

8. In each shape or on each line, write the facts or information that support that main idea.

When you have finished, you have the basic structure for your essay and are ready to continue.

Outline

1. Begin your outline by writing your topic at the top of the page.

2. Next, write the Roman numerals I, II, and III, spread apart down the left side of the page.

3. Next to each Roman numeral, write the main ideas that you have about your topic, or the main points that you want to make.

• If you are trying to persuade, you want to write your best arguments.

• If you are trying to explain a process, you want to write the steps that should be followed.

You will probably need to group these into categories.

• If you have trouble grouping the steps into categories, try using Beginning, Middle, and End.

• If you are trying to inform, you want to write the major categories into which your information can be divided.

4. Under each Roman numeral, write A, B, and C down the left side of the page.

5. Next to each letter, write the facts or information that support that main idea.

When you have finished, you have the basic structure for your essay and are ready to continue.

Write your thesis statement.

Compose a Thesis Statement

Now that you have decided, at least tentatively, what information you plan to present in your essay, you are ready to write your thesis statement.

The thesis statement tells the reader what the essay will be about, and what point you, the author, will be making. You know what the essay will be about. That was your topic. Now you must look at your outline or diagram and decide what point you will be making. What do the main ideas and supporting ideas that you listed say about your topic?

Your thesis statement will have two parts.

• The first part states the topic.

• Kenya's Culture

• Building a Model Train Set

• Public Transportation

• The second part states the point of the essay.

• has a rich and varied history

• takes time and patience

• can solve some of our city's most persistent and pressing problems

Or in the second part you could simply list the three main ideas you will discuss.

• has a long history, blends traditions from several other cultures, and provides a rich heritage.

• requires an investment in time, patience, and materials.

• helps with traffic congestion, resource management, and the city budget.

Once you have formulated a thesis statement that fits this pattern and with which you are comfortable, you are ready to continue.

Write the body.

• Write the main points.

• Write the subpoints.

• Elaborate on the subpoints.

Write the Body Paragraphs

In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this point comes to fruition. The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued.

Each main idea that you wrote down in your diagram or outline will become one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four main ideas, you will have three or four body paragraphs.

Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure.

1. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form.

If your main idea is "reduces freeway congestion," you might say this:

Public transportation reduces freeway congestion.

2. Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point.

3. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point.

Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion.

Supporting Point

Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather than driving.

Elaboration

Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes.

Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as well.

In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of riding public transportation.

4. If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph.

This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a tendency to sound stilted, so be cautious about using them.

Once you have fleshed out each of your body paragraphs, one for each main point, you are ready to continue.

Write the introduction.

Write the Introduction and Conclusion

Your essay lacks only two paragraphs now: the introduction and the conclusion. These paragraphs will give the reader a point of entry to and a point of exit from your essay.

Introduction

The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give her an idea of the essay's focus.

1. Begin with an attention grabber.

The attention grabber you use is up to you, but here are some ideas:

• Startling information

This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn't need to be totally new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make.

If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a sentence or two of elaboration.

• Anecdote

An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point.

Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective opener for your essay, but use it carefully.

• Dialogue

An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers, but the reader must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use only two or three exchanges between speakers to make your point.

Follow dialogue with a sentence or two of elaboration.

• Summary Information

A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become gradually more specific, until you reach your thesis.

2. If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences that will lead the reader from your opening to your thesis statement.

3. Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

Write the conclusion.

Conclusion

The conclusion brings closure to the reader, summing up your points or providing a final perspective on your topic.

All the conclusion needs is three or four strong sentences which do not need to follow any set formula. Simply review the main points (being careful not to restate them exactly) or briefly describe your feelings about the topic. Even an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way.

The introduction and conclusion complete the paragraphs of your essay.

Don't stop just yet! One more step remains before your essay is truly finished.

Add the finishing touches.

Add the Finishing Touches

You have now completed all of the paragraphs of your essay. Before you can consider this a finished product, however, you must give some thought to the formatting of your paper.

Check the order of your paragraphs.

Look at your paragraphs. Which one is the strongest? You might want to start with the strongest paragraph, end with the second strongest, and put the weakest in the middle. Whatever order you decide on, be sure it makes sense. If your paper is describing a process, you will probably need to stick to the order in which the steps must be completed.

Check the instructions for the assignment.

When you prepare a final draft, you must be sure to follow all of the instructions you have been given.

• Are your margins correct?

• Have you titled it as directed?

• What other information (name, date, etc.) must you include?

• Did you double-space your lines?

Check your writing.

Nothing can substitute for revision of your work. By reviewing what you have done, you can improve weak points that otherwise would be missed. Read and reread your paper.

• Does it make logical sense?

Leave it for a few hours and then read it again. Does it still make logical sense?

• Do the sentences flow smoothly from one another?

If not, try to add some words and phrases to help connect them. Transition words, such as "therefore" or "however," sometimes help. Also, you might refer in one sentence to a thought in the previous sentence. This is especially useful when you move from one paragraph to another.

• Have you run a spell checker or a grammar checker?

These aids cannot catch every error, but they might catch errors that you have missed...

These are the examples of Cohesive Markers that will help you to write an essay:

4.2. Types of essays

Four types of essays exist including: narration, description, exposition, and argument. Each type has a unique purpose: some tell a story, some are descriptive and others prevent viewpoints. One of the best ways to better understand each type of essay is to review examples.

Narrative

Narration is telling a story from a certain viewpoint, and there is usually a reason for the telling. All narrative essays will have characters, setting, climax, and most importantly, a plot. The plot is the focus of the story and is usually revealed chronologically, but there are sometimes flash forwards and flash backs.

In writing a narrative essay, remember to:

Include sensory and emotional details, so the reader will experience the story, not just read about it

Have the story support the point you are making, and make reference to that point in the first sentence.

Write in the first or third person

Descriptive

Descriptive essays have text which describes traits and characteristics of people, objects, events, feelings, etc in intricate detail.

Whatever is being described will be thoroughly examined. For example, if you were describing roses, you would explain:

Where they come from

What they look like

What colors they are

How they grow and smell

When you write a descriptive essay, you want to involve the reader’s senses and emotions. For example, you could say, “I got sleepy” or describe it like this, "As I was waiting for Santa, my eyelids began to get heavy, the lights on the tree began to blur with the green branches, and my head started to drop." The second sentence gives vivid details to make the reader feel like he is there.

Exposition

Expository essays can compare, explore and discuss problems, or tell a story. An exposition essay gives information about various topics to the reader. It:

Informs

Describes

Explains

In writing an exposition, the text needs to:

Be concise and easy to understand

Give different views on a subject or report on a situation or event

Explain something that may be difficult to understand as you write your essay.

Remember that your purpose is to explain.

Argumentative

In an argumentative essay the writer is trying to convince the reader by demonstrating the truth or falsity of a topic. The writer’s position will be backed up with certain kinds of evidence, like statistics or opinions of experts.

The writer is not just giving an opinion, but making an argument for or against something and supporting that argument with data.

To know how to write an essay in an argumentative way, you have to research and backup what you say in the text.

When learning how to write an essay, sometimes the best way to learn is to look and analyze essay examples.

Following is an excerpt from narrative essay:

"Looking back on a childhood filled with events and memories, I find it rather difficult to pick on that leaves me with the fabled "warm and fuzzy feelings." As the daughter of an Air Force Major, I had the pleasure of traveling across America in many moving trips. I have visited the monstrous trees of the Sequoia National Forest, stood on the edge of the Grande Canyon and have jumped on the beds at Caesar’s Palace in Lake Tahoe."

"The day I picked my dog up from the pound was one of the happiest days of both of our lives. I had gone to the pound just a week earlier with the idea that I would just "look" at a puppy. Of course, you can no more just look at those squiggling little faces so filled with hope and joy than you can stop the sun from setting in the morning. I knew within minutes of walking in the door that I would get a puppy… but it wasn't until I saw him that I knew I had found my puppy."

"Looking for houses was supposed to be a fun and exciting process. Unfortunately, none of the ones that we saw seemed to match the specifications that we had established. They were too small, too impersonal, too close to the neighbors. After days of finding nothing even close, we began to wonder: was there really a perfect house out there for us?"

Here is a descriptive essay about a first visit to a favorite diner written by a student at Roane State Community College:"When entering the door at Lou’s, two things are immediately noticeable: the place is rarely empty and seems to consist of a maze of rooms. The first room, through the door, is the main part of the restaurant. There is another, rarely used, dining room off to the right. It was added during the oil well boom of the seventies. Through the main dining room is yet another room; it guards the door leading into the kitchen. This room contains the most coveted table in the place. The highest tribute Lou can bestow on anyone is to allow them access to seats at this table. This table is the family table; it is reserved for Lou’s, and her daughter Karen’s, immediate family and treasured friends."

Following is an excerpt from exposition essay:

“Throughout history and through a cross-section of cultures, women have transformed their appearance to conform to a beauty ideal. Ancient Chinese aristocrats bound their feet as a show of femininity; American and European women in the 1800s cinched in their waists so tightly, some suffered internal damage; in some African cultures women continue to wear plates in their lower lips, continually stretching the skin to receive plates of larger size. The North American ideal of beauty has continually focussed on women's bodies: the tiny waist of the Victorian period, the boyish figure in vogue during the flapper era, and the voluptuous curves that were the measure of beauty between the 1930s and 1950s. Current standards emphasize a toned, slender look, one that exudes fitness, youth, and health. According to psychologist Eva Szekely, "Having to be attractive at this time . . . means unequivocally having to be thin. In North America today, thinness is a precondition for being perceived by others and oneself as healthy" (19). However, this relentless pursuit of thinness is not just an example of women trying to look their best, it is also a struggle for control, acceptance and success.”

Finally, here is an excerpt from argumentative essay:

"Gun control has been a controversial issue for years. A vast majority of citizens believe that if gun control is strictly enforced it would quickly reduce the threat of crime. Many innocent people feel they have the right to bear arms for protection, or even for the pleasure of hunting. These people are penalized for protecting their lives, or even for enjoying a common, innocent sport. To enforce gun control throughout the nation means violating a persons Constitutional rights. Although some people feel that the issue of gun control will limit crime, the issue should not exist due to the fact that guns are necessary for self defense against crime, and by enforcing gun control is violating a citizen’s second amendment right to bear arms."

The key to learning to write a good essay is to read and study other essays and then practice, practice, rewrite and practice some more.

4.3. Вопросы для самоконтроля

1. Why is it important to have an idea about the structure of an essay?

2. What are the four types of essays mentioned in the lecture?

3. What is a narrative essay?

4. What is a descriptive essay?

5. What is a expository essay?

6. What is an argumentative essay?

4.4. Задания для практики

Exercise 1.Study the essay example given below

• Mark the structure of the essay

• Find the topic, supporting, transition and concluding sentences.

• find the evidences supporting the authors point of view

• find all cohesive markers and explain their usage.

The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic essay. The different parts of the essay have been labeled. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics, and each main point is underlined. When you write your own essay, of course, you will not need to mark these parts of the essay unless your teacher has asked you to do so. They are marked here just so that you can more easily identify them.

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent housepets as they are good companions, they are civilized members of the household, and they are easy to care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they're not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats don't even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is their ease of care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about their usual activities until their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters or less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat personality. In many ways, cats are the ideal housepet.

Exercise 2. Write an essay on the topic given below

“Truly great bands are more than just labels for products”

Tony O’Reilly, Irish entrepreneur

You may choose any type of an essay to write. Be ready to prove your choice.

4.5. Глоссарий по теме 4

academic essay – a composition treating of any particular subject; -- usually shorter and less methodical than a formal, finished treatise

thesis statement – the main idea, claim, or problem stated in the text, which the writer promises to deal with in the text

cohesive markers – words that help to form well-structured sentences

narrative essay – telling a story from a certain viewpoint

descriptive essay – describes the traits and characteristics of people, objects, events, feeling in intricate detail

expository essay – compare, explore and discuss problems or tell a story

argumentative essay – convince the reader by demonstrating the truth or falsity of a topic

4.6. Использованные информационные ресурсы.

1. Bruffee K., A Short Course in Writing: Composition, Collaborative Learning, and Constructive Reading, Longman Classics Edition (4th Edition): Longman; 4 edition, 2006

2. Bryant A., Essays on Writing (A Longman Topics Reader): Longman; 1 edition, 2008

3. http://lklivingston.tripod.com/essay/thesis.html

4. http://editor.perfect-essays.com/PE/EDITOR/Writing_Tips.asp

5. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/01/

Тема 5. Written presentations. Introductions and Conclusions. «Написание вступления и заключения к научной статье»

Аннотация: Данная тема формирует умение составлять план и стратегию сообщения, доклада, презентации проекта по проблеме научного исследования на основе аутентичных источников. Формирует навыки аргументированного высказывания по теме научной статьи.

Ключевые слова: introduction, conclusion, thesis statement

Методические рекомендации по изучению темы.

• Тема содержит теоретический материал по составлению плана и стратегии сообщения, доклада, презентации (подготовка вступления и заключения) по проблеме научного исследования на основе аутентичных источников.

• После изучения теоретического материала необходимо ответить на вопросы и выполнить задания для практики, которые помогут закрепить изученный материал.

5.1. Written presentations. Introductions and Conclusions.

INTRODUCTIONS & CONCLUSIONS

The introduction and conclusion allow a writer to address the overall purpose and significance of an essay. In general terms, the introduction states the intention, while the conclusion defines the achievement of an essay. Together they constitute the frame for your paper, providing the first and last opportunities to convince your reader of its value. Because they occupy such rhetorically important positions in the structure of your paper, the introduction and conclusion should be crafted with care.

There is no single formula for writing introductions and conclusions. The strategy you adopt will depend on the nature of the assignment, the conventions of the academic discipline, and the internal imperatives of your particular argument. But the introduction and conclusion do typically accomplish certain things. They define the scope and focus of an essay. They situate your main point in a larger context. And they help your reader understand the value of your argument.

THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction typically serves several purposes:

• It sets the tone for your paper.

Remember that when you write the introduction, you are introducing not only your argument, but also yourself, the author. What kind of persona do you want to project? Presumably, you do not want to come across as dogmatic, impatient, or hostile toward your subject or others who have written about it. This kind of stance will likely alienate a reader, who may choose simply to stop reading. In academic writing, it is much more effective to present yourself as a thoughtful writer who has a good command of the subject, who can acknowledge complexity and nuance, who has made reasonable judgments on the basis of textual or factual evidence, and who is aware of alternative interpretations. In any case, the tone of the introduction is an important part of any strategy of persuasion.

• It identifies and limits your subject.

Your introduction tells a reader what you are writing about and defines the scope of your inquiry.

• It orients your reader by explaining the specific context and rationale for your argument.

Your reader looks to the introduction not only for the thesis statement or central idea, but also for orientation within the chosen area of inquiry. Take care, therefore, to provide any background or context that will help your reader understand how your work fits into the larger picture, and why it matters. Locate your work on the conceptual map.

• It engages your reader's attention and persuades to keep reading.

Your introduction should present an original thesis on a significant topic within a well- defined subject area. But there are different ways of accomplishing this in an engaging way. For example, you might approach your topic by

• moving from the specific to the general: use an anecdote, quotation, fact, or textual detail that illustrates the larger issues

• moving from the general to the specific: first present a somewhat wider view of the subject, then focus in on the particular area of inquiry.

*Take care, however, that the "wide view" does not become an occasion for windy generality and vague abstraction. The wide view should itself be focused, concrete, and directly relevant to your particular topic. [See below, "Formulaic Introductions"]

• posing a significant question or problem that serves to focus your inquiry

• challenging a commonplace interpretation

• Sometimes, especially in longer essays, the introduction describes the structure of your essay.

A brief overview of the organization of your paper can help prepare your reader to follow your argument.

The Challenge of Writing the Introduction

Writing the introduction can be a daunting task, and it is natural to feel anxious about it. After all, you can write a good introduction only if you have a clearly defined thesis statement and a sure command of the relevant evidence. Since these things will emerge only after patient grappling with your texts, it helps if you first prepare to write your introduction by studying your materials, taking notes, gathering evidence, organizing ideas, and proposing a possible line of argument. Doing this preparatory work will make the task of writing the introduction much easier. Then you can revisit it as the paper continues to take shape. Some tips:

• Be prepared to revise your introduction at any point during the writing process.

In the course of drafting the essay you may discover a more compelling argument than the one with which you began. If this happens, you will want to sharpen, adjust, or change your thesis statement and introduction so that they reflect your new focus. Again, this is a natural, perhaps even necessary, part of the writing experience. For while academic prose takes a linear form, the process that produces the best such writing is constantly recursive and dialectical. The good introduction is the result of a process that includes preparatory thinking, provisional drafting, and ongoing revision.

• State your purpose early.

Many students worry that if they present their central ideas in the introduction, they will have nothing left to say in the body of the paper. But your reader is looking to the introduction for a clear statement of purpose; if it's not there, you may lose more in confusion than you gain in suspense. And remember that the strength of your paper lies not only in the introductory presentation of your main idea, but also in the careful execution of a well-developed argument. Your reader will remain engaged both because you have a clear and interesting claim, and because you go on to justify that claim with compelling evidence and a detailed, disciplined argument. The point here is that you can present your central claim in the introduction without depriving your reader of the sense of ongoing discovery that arises from well-chosen evidence and cogent analysis.

• Avoid formulaic introductions.

The formulaic introduction is usually a sign of poor preparation. If you haven't thought deeply and carefully enough about your subject, it will not be possible to generate an original thesis and a focused argument about it. The result will be a paper that relies on little more than vague generality and empty formula. Among the formulaic approaches you should avoid are introductions that present:

The history-of-the-world: "From the dawn of time...." This kind of opening gives readers the impression that you have not mastered your material sufficiently to say something substantive and specific about it.

The dictionary definition: "According to Webster's..." Like any general formula, this one evades the specific demands of your subject. If the definition of terms is important to your argument - and it usually is - take care to make distinctions and present definitions that are specific to your materials. This is especially important if there is disagreement about the meaning of key terms among those who have written about a given subject. It may be useful to consult dictionaries, but be sure that you remain sensitive to the specific meaning(s) of a term as it appears in your particular materials.

Example of an Introduction:

In the post-apartheid era, the number of skilled women leaders occupying parliamentary and governmental positions in South Africa has increased, from 28% to 30% in the 1998 elections (Gap, 2000). This is still small in comparison to those held by their male counterparts. The movement of skilled women into leadership positions has created a leadership vacuum at a community level. There are many individuals who are committed and eager to enter these community leadership roles but their underdeveloped skills undermine their effectiveness and influence. Training is required for both categories of women, skilled and unskilled, which will result in the promotion of more women into leadership positions in both the formal and informal sectors.

Numerous writers have reported that leadership training programmes (from now on referred to as "LTP") are extremely effective in improving or developing an individual's leadership abilities, and individuals who actively participate in LTP become more dynamic leaders and active learners (Laird, 1985; Mitchiner, 2000; Stodgill, 1974). In South Africa a range of women's LTP exists, yet, there is no clarity about these programmes target participants, training content, evaluation strategies, underlying assumptions and potential effectiveness. This study aimed to analyse women's LTP presently active in South Africa. The findings provide a picture of the activities presently being undertaken by some organizations in South Africa, which aim to increase women's leadership skills, and encourage women to occupy more leadership positions. The issues that emerged aim to inform future policies and training programmes.

THE CONCLUSION

Like the introduction, the conclusion brings your central ideas into focus - but now, at the end of your paper, they appear in light of the foregoing argument. Obviously, then, the goal is to make your reader feel that the argument has fully achieved the goals you have set in the introduction. Your reader should feel convinced by your argument and satisfied that all has come full circle. It is a good idea, therefore, to write the final versions of the introduction and conclusion each with the other in mind - and to make any adjustments to them (or to the intervening argument) that are needed to make the declared goals match the actual accomplishment.

Writing the conclusion can be challenging, because now that you have completed the main argument, it may seem as if the only thing left to do is to summarize it. Certainly, the conclusion typically includes an element of summary, but an effective conclusion does not feel like mere summary. For even as you move to recapitulate and close your argument, it is important to sustain your reader's interest by using your conclusion to extend, and not just repeat that argument. Even in the conclusion you should strive to produce in your reader a sense of discovery and prospect.

There are different ways of doing this. For example:

• Indicate how your main point fits into a larger context. Show how your discoveries resonate within the larger subject area.

• Consider making recommendations for future research on matters related to, but beyond the scope of this particular paper.

• You might incorporate key words and phrases from your introduction, presenting them now in a way to reveal their greater depth, nuance, or implication.

The length of both the introduction and conclusion should be appropriate to the length of the entire paper. Once again, there is no fixed rule, but as a general rule of thumb, one might devote one paragraph to each in a short essay, and up to several pages in longer papers like JPs.

Example of a Conclusion:

Through an analysis of women's LTP this study has investigated the activities that are being provided by this sample's organizations in order to increase women's leadership skills, and equip women with the skills needed to occupy leadership positions. This study has illustrated this samples aims, target audience, strategies, underlying assumptions and potential effectiveness. Perhaps, future research is needed to review all women's LTP presently active in South Africa. Overall, the interviewee's transcripts and the respondent's questionnaire supported the literature on women's leadership and the value of LTP. The LTP operating in South Africa are required to address a wide array of needs and, to be sensitive and aware of the diverse socio-economic contexts and population demographics, when designing an effective programme. Themes that emerged from this sample highlighted that, in South Africa LTP aim to provide participants with the skills to become leaders who will enrich and empower their communities. LTP implement strategies, in order to make the material relevant and interesting to the participants, and to effectively accomplish the programme's aim of equipping the participants with the necessary 'people' skills needed for leadership.

Women have been recognized as possessing leadership qualities that are beneficial to communities, yet they are still not occupying a great percentage of the leadership positions. LTP, such as the ones explored in this study, are successful in providing women with the skills required to occupy leadership positions. In the future, there is a need and market for both women-only LTP and mixed-sex LTP. Additionally, there is a demand for a more accessible external organization to standardize and accredit women's LTP. The implementation of both these structures will result in societal acknowledgement of women's unique leadership skills, and women will have the opportunity to continue their education and seek better employment. Women will be equipped with the skills and confidence to occupy more and greater leadership positions. Thus LTP must continue to be implemented which will enable women to assume leadership roles in the formal and informal sectors.

5.2. Вопросы для самоконтроля.

1. What is the purpose of an introduction?

2. What is the challenge of writing an introduction?

3. What should be avoided while writing an introduction?

4. What is the purpose of a conclusion?

5. What is the difference between a conclusion and a summary?

5.3. Задания для практики.

Exercise 1. Write an introduction and conclusion to the article given below.

Group Decision Making

Advantages of Group Decision Making

Committees, task forces, and ad hoc groups are frequently assigned to identify and recommend decision alternatives or, in some cases, to actually make important decisions. In essence, a group is a tool that can focus the experience and expertise of several people on a particular problem or situation. Thus, a group offers the advantage of greater total knowledge. Groups accumulate more information, knowledge, and facts than individuals and often consider more alternatives. Each person in the group is able to draw on his or her unique education, experience, insights, and other resources and contribute those to the group. The varied backgrounds, training levels, and expertise of group members also help overcome tunnel vision by enabling the group to view the problem in more than one way.

Participation in group decision making usually leads to higher member satisfaction. People tend to accept a decision more readily and to be better satisfied with it when they have participated in making that decision. In addition, people will better understand and be more committed to a decision in which they have had a say than to a decision made for them. As a result, such a decision is more likely to be implemented successfully.

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

While groups have many potential benefits, we all know that they can also be frustrating. One obvious disadvantage of group decision making is the time required to make a decision. The time needed for group discussion and the associated compromising and selecting of a decision alternative can be considerable. Time costs money, so a waste of time becomes a disadvantage if a decision made by a group could have been made just as effectively by an individual working alone. Consequently, group decisions should be avoided when speed and efficiency are the primary considerations.

A second disadvantage is that the group discussion may be dominated by an individual or subgroup. Effectiveness can be reduced if one individual, such as the group leader, dominates the discussion by talking too much or being closed to other points of view. Some group leaders try to control the group and provide the major input. Such dominance can stifle other group members' willingness to participate and could cause decision alternatives to be ignored or overlooked. All group members need to be encouraged and permitted to contribute.

Another disadvantage of group decision making is that members may be less concerned with the group's goals than with their own personal goals. They may become so sidetracked in trying to win an argument that they forget about group performance. On the other hand, a group may try too hard to compromise and consequently may not make optimal decisions. Sometimes this stems from the desire to maintain friendships and avoid disagreements. Often groups exert tremendous social pressure on individuals to conform to established or expected patterns of behavior. Especially when they are dealing with important and controversial issues, interacting groups may be prone to a phenomenon called groupthink.

Groupthink is an agreement-at-any-cost mentality that results in ineffective group decision making. It occurs when groups are highly cohesive, have highly directive leaders, are insulated so they have no clear ways to get objective information, and—because they lack outside information—have little hope that a better solution might be found than the one proposed by the leader or other influential group members. These conditions foster the illusion that the group is invulnerable, right, and more moral than outsiders. They also encourage the development of self-appointed "mind guards" who bring pressure on dissenters. In such situations, decisions—often important decisions—are made without consideration of alternative frames or alternative options. It is difficult to imagine conditions more conducive to poor decision making and wrong decisions.

Recent research indicates that groupthink may also result when group members have preconceived ideas about how a problem should be solved. Under these conditions, the team may not examine a full range of decision alternatives, or it may discount or avoid information that threatens its preconceived choice.

5.4. Глоссарий по теме 5.

introduction-the first part of an essay or article

thesis statement – the main idea, claim, or problem stated in the text, which the writer promises to deal with in the text

summary - is generally much shorter than the original text. It includes only key ideas and omits the details. It may or may not follow the order of the original.

point of view: Point of view in critical thinking refers to the perspective you are coming from in your reasoning and writing (or the perspective of the author you are reading).

conclusion: A conclusion is the end result of an argument. It is the main point you make in your paper and should be the logical result of the reasons you provide to support your argument

5.5. Использованные информационные ресурсы.

1. Lunsford Andrea A, Easy Writer with 2009 MLA and 2010 APA Updates: A Pocket Reference: Bedford/St. Martin's; Fourth Edition edition, 2009

2. Wilhoit S., Brief Guide to Writing from Readings, A (5th Edition): Longman; 5 edition, 2009

3. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/introductions/

4. http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/acadwrite/conclude.html

Тема 6. Presentations and debates. «Дебаты и устные выступления по теме научного исследования»

Аннотация: Тема формирует навыки свободно и аргументированно излагать свою точку зрения по теме научного исследования на иностранном языке, формирует профессионального понятийно-терминологический аппарат на основе аутентичных источников по теме научного исследования.

Ключевые слова: presentation, introduction, body, conclusion, signposting, debate, matter.

Методические рекомендации по изучению темы.

• Тема содержит теоретический материал, способствующий формированию навыков свободно и аргументированно излагать свою точку зрения по теме научного исследования на иностранном языке.

• После изучения теоретической информации необходимо ответить на вопросы к самоконтролю и выполнить задания для практики по изученным материалам.

6.1. Presentation. Business Presentations and Public Speaking in English

A presentation is a formal talk to one or more people that "presents" ideas or information in a clear, structured way. People are sometimes afraid of speaking in public, but if you follow a few simple rules, giving a presentation is actually very easy.

If you want your audience to understand your message, your language must be simple and clear.

• Use short words and short sentences.

• Do not use jargon, unless you are certain that your audience understands it.

• In general, talk about concrete facts rather than abstract ideas.

Use active verbs instead of passive verbs. Active verbs are much easier to understand. They are much more powerful. Consider these two sentences, which say the same thing:

1. Toyota sold two million cars last year.

2. Two million cars were sold by Toyota last year.

Which is easier to understand? Which is more immediate? Which is more powerful? #1 is active and #2 is passive.

Most presentations are divided into 3 main parts (+ questions):

1 INTRODUCTION (Questions)

2 BODY

3 CONCLUSION

4 Questions

As a general rule in communication, repetition is valuable. In presentations, there is a golden rule about repetition:

• Say what you are going to say,

• say it,

• then say what you have just said.

In other words, use the three parts of your presentation to reinforce your message. In the introduction, you tell your audience what your message is going to be. In the body, you tell your audience your real message. In the conclusion, you summarize what your message was.

We will now consider each of these parts in more detail.

Introduction

The introduction is a very important - perhaps the most important - part of your presentation. This is the first impression that your audience have of you. You should concentrate on getting your introduction right. You should use the introduction to:

• welcome your audience

• introduce your subject

• outline the structure of your presentation

• give instructions about questions

The following table shows examples of language for each of these functions. You may need to modify the language as appropriate.

Body

The body is the 'real' presentation. If the introduction was well prepared and delivered, you will now be 'in control'. You will be relaxed and confident.

The body should be well structured, divided up logically, with plenty of carefully spaced visuals.

Remember these key points while delivering the body of your presentation:

• do not hurry

• be enthusiastic

• give time on visuals

• maintain eye contact

• modulate your voice

• look friendly

• keep to your structure

• use your notes

• signpost throughout

• remain polite when dealing with difficult questions

Conclusion

Use the conclusion to:

• Sum up

• (Give recommendations if appropriate)

• Thank your audience

• Invite questions

The following table shows examples of language for each of these functions. You may need to modify the language as appropriate.

Signposting

When you drive on the roads, you know where you are on those roads. Each road has a name or number. Each town has a name. And each house has a number. If you are at house #100, you can go back to #50 or forward to #150. You can look at the signposts for directions. And you can look at your atlas for the structure of the roads in detail. In other words, it is easy to navigate the roads. You cannot get lost. But when you give a presentation, how can your audience know where they are? How can they know the structure of your presentation? How can they know what is coming next? They know because you tell them. Because you put up signposts for them at the beginning and all along the route. This technique is called 'signposting' (or 'signalling').

During your introduction, you should tell your audience what the structure of your presentation will be. You might say something like this:

"I'll start by describing the current position in Europe. Then I'll move on to some of the achievements we've made in Asia. After that I'll consider the opportunities we see for further expansion in Africa. Lastly, I'll quickly recap before concluding with some recommendations."

A member of the audience can now visualize your presentation like this:

He will keep this image in his head during the presentation. He may even write it down. And throughout your presentation, you will put up signposts telling him which point you have reached and where you are going now. When you finish Europe and want to start Asia, you might say:

"That's all I have to say about Europe. Let's turn now to Asia."

When you have finished Africa and want to sum up, you might say:

"Well, we've looked at the three continents Europe, Asia and Africa. I'd like to sum up now."

And when you finish summing up and want to give your recommendations, you might say:

"What does all this mean for us? Well, firstly I recommend..."

The table below lists useful expressions that you can use to signpost the various parts of your presentation.

6.2. Debates

A debate is, basically, an argument. That is not to say that it is an undisciplined shouting match between parties that passionately believe in a particular point of view. In fact the opposite is true. Debating has strict rules of conduct and quite sophisticated arguing techniques and you will often be in a position where you will have to argue the opposite of what you believe in.

THE TOPIC.

If a debate is a form of argument then it logically follows that there must be something to argue about. This is called the TOPIC. The topic changes from debate to debate. They are often about current issues of public importance ("That Canberra should have self government") or about general philosophies or ideas ("That beauty is better than brains"). All topics begin with the word "That". As in other arguments there are two sides to any topic. The team that agrees with the topic is called the AFFIRMATIVE (or the `government' in parliamentary debating) and the team that disagrees with the topic is called the NEGATIVE (or the `opposition' in parliamentary debating). When organising a debate it is important to select a topic that is appropriate to the age and education of the debaters concerned. Often topics will cover areas that the debaters have a specific interest in or, in the case of schools debates, that have been covered in classes or are current news items.

DEFINITION.

If a debate is going to take place then it must be agreed in advance what the debate is going to be about. Thus it must be agreed what the topic means. This may seem obvious in a topic like "That Canberra should have self government" but with something like "That a cabbage is better than a rose" is might not be so clear. Deciding and explaining what a topic means is called `defining the topic'. The job of defining begins with the AFFIRMATIVE. The first speaker of the affirmative must explain in clear terms what they believe the topic means. In deciding this the affirmative team should always try to use the "person on the street" test. That is if this topic were presented to the average person on the street - is this what they would take it to mean. Where the topic is too obscure to allow this test then apply the `reasonability' test. The affirmative team should ask themselves "Is this definition reasonable ? Is it something the average person might expect ? Does it allow for both sides of the debate ?". If you can answer yes to these questions then the definition is probably reasonable, if not search for something more reasonable. Try to avoid the dictionary, except in cases where you don't understand a word. In your definition explain the meaning of the whole topic rather than each separate word.

The negative team may agree with or choose to challenge the definition presented. The negative team should be very careful about challenging as it is difficult to continue the debate with two definitions. Challenges may be made if the definition given is unreasonable or if it defines the opposition out of the debate. If the negative team chooses to challenge the definition it should be done by the first speaker who should clearly outline why the negative is challenging and then propose a better definition.

TEAM LINE.

Because debating is a team event it is important that the three speakers work together as a team. The TEAM LINE is the basic statement of "why the topic is true" (for the affirmative) and "why the topic is false" (for the negative). It should be a short sentence, presented by the first speaker of each team and used by the other two speakers to enforce the idea of teamwork.

REBUTTAL.

In debating each team will present points in favour of their case. They will also spend some time criticising the arguments presented by the other team. This is called rebuttal. There are a few things to remember about rebuttal.

1. Logic - to say that the other side is wrong is not enough. You have to show why the other side is wrong. This is best done by taking a main point of the other side's argument and showing that it does not make sense. Because a lot of the thinking for this needs to be done quickly this is one of the most challenging and enjoyable aspects of debating.

2. Pick the important points - try to rebut the most important points of the other side's case. You will find that after a while these are easier and easier to spot. One obvious spot to find them is when the first speaker of the other team outlines briefly what the rest of the team will say. But do not rebut those points until after they have actually been presented by the other team.

3. `Play the ball' - do not criticise the individual speakers, criticise what they say. To call someone fat, ugly or a nerd does not make what they say wrong and it will also lose you marks.

THE INDIVIDUAL SPEAKER.

There are many techniques that each speaker can use in their speech. The main area is matter.

MATTER.

Matter is what you say, it is the substance of your speech. You should divide your matter into arguments and examples.

An argument is a statement "The topic is true (or false depending on which side you are on) because of x", where the argument fills in for the x . For example in the topic "That the zoos should be closed" an argument may be: "the zoos should be closed because they confine the animals in an unnatural environment".

An example is a fact or piece of evidence which supports an argument. If our argument is: "that zoos should be closed because they confine the animals in an unnatural environment" then an example might be: "that in the lion cage at Taronga Park Zoo in Sydney the animals only have about 200 square metres where in the wild they would have 2000 square kilometres to roam in.".

Any examples that you use should be relevant to the topic at hand. Examples which have very little or nothing to do with the topic only make a speech look weak and lacking substance.

Matter cannot be just a long list of examples. You do not win a debate by creating the biggest pile of facts. Facts are like bricks in a wall, if you don't use them, cement them together properly then they are useless. Similarly you cannot win a debate solely by proving that some of the facts of the opposition are wrong. It may weaken their case a little, the same way that removing some of the bricks from a wall will, but you really need to attack the main arguments that the other side presents to bring the whole wall crashing down.

Many debates are on currently important issues so it is good for any debater to keep themselves informed of what is happening in the world around them and what are the issues involved.

6.3. Вопросы для самоконтроля

1. What is a presentation?

2. Why is it recommended to use active verbs instead of passive when speaking in public?

3. What is the typical presentation structure?

4. What should be included into introduction part?

5. What is the conclusion used for?

6. What is signposting technique used for?

7. What is a debate?

8. What I a rebuttal in a debate?

9. What is the matter in a debate?

10. What should be the matter divided into?

6.4. Задания для практики

Exercise 1. Choose the topic for making up a presentation from the list given below. Prepare a presentation of at least 1500 words. Make up 5-7 slides to support it.

Topics for presentations:

• staff motivation

• intellectual property protection

• managing intellectual property

• post merger integration

• managing innovation

• sustainable business development

Assessment criteria

• fluency and coherence ;

• vocabulary usage;

• grammatical range and accuracy;

• ability to justify your opinion.

6.5. Глоссарий по теме 6.

presentation – a formal talk to one or more people that presents ideas or information in a clear, structured way

signposting – the technique used in presentation to inform the audience about what is coming next

debate – to contend for in words or arguments; to strive to maintain by reasoning; to dispute; to contest; to discuss; to argue for and against

rebuttal – presenting points in favour of your idea and criticizing the arguments o an opponent

matter – the substance of the speech

6.6. Использованные информационные ресурсы.

1. http://www.garrreynolds.com/preso-tips/deliver/

2. http://www.actdu.org.au/archives/actein_site/basicskills.html#adebate

3. http://hbr.org/2013/06/how-to-give-a-killer-presentation/

4. http://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/presentationskills.htm

Глоссарий

abbreviation-the short form of a word or phrase

abridgement - is a shortened form of a work that to a great extent keeps the language of the original.

abstract-a short summary of the aims and scope of a journal article

academic essay – a composition treating of any particular subject; -- usually shorter and less methodical than a formal, finished treatise

acknowledgements -a list of people the author wishes to thank for their assistance, found in books and articles

analysis - analysis involves breaking down an idea and working out the meaning of the individual parts and how they relate to the whole

appendix (plural – appendices)-a section at the end of a book or article contain supplementary information

argument - in most college writing, you are making some type of argu­ments) and presenting a conclusion about a topic using reason and evidence to convince your readers of your point. Arguments in writing can be casual and entertaining (such as arguing for the best place in town to go for a first date), or they can be more formal and structured (such as arguing for the need for a new science building on your campus).

argumentative essay – convince the reader by demonstrating the truth or falsity of a topic

assumptions -an assumption is a belief or claim that you take for granted or that society, particular people, or an author you are reading takes for granted without providing or asking for evidence or proof to support the idea.

bias-a subjective preference for one point of view

bibliography-a list of sources an author has read but not specifically cited

citation-an in-text reference providing a link to the source

cohesion-linking ideas in a text together by use of reference words

cohesive markers – words that help to form well-structured sentences

conclusion - is the end result of an argument. It is the main point you make in your paper and should be the logical result of the reasons you provide to support your argument

debate – to contend for in words or arguments; to strive to maintain by reasoning; to dispute; to contest; to discuss; to argue for and against

descriptive essay – describes the traits and characteristics of people, objects, events, feeling in intricate detail

evaluation: Evaluation is looking at the strength of your reasoning, sup­port, and conclusions (or those of another writer) and how well those ideas are developed and explained

expository essay – compare, explore and discuss problems or tell a story

hypothesis-a theory which a researcher is attempting to explore/ test

imply/implication- to imply means to hint that something is so, to say it indirectly

inference- inference involves tapping into your ability to read between the lines and figure out, or infer, what someone means based on clues in what they say or write.

interpretation- interpretation involves decoding an idea so you understand its meaning.

introduction-the first part of an essay or article

main body-the principal part of an essay, after the introduction and before the conclusion

matter – the substance of the speech

narrative essay – telling a story from a certain viewpoint

opinion- your opinion is what you (or another writer) believe about an idea, question, or topic. Opinion involves thinking about an idea or question and coming to your own conclusions about it. An opinion is based on weighing information and deciding where you stand on a question.

outline -a preparatory plan for a piece of writing

paraphrase- is written in language different from the original. It follows the order of the original text and, unlike a summary, it recasts everything, not just the main ideas. It may be shorter than the original, but it could be longer.

plagiarism-using another writer’s work without acknowledgement in an acceptable manner

point of view: Point of view in critical thinking refers to the perspective you are coming from in your reasoning and writing (or the perspective of the author you are reading).

presentation – a formal talk to one or more people that presents ideas or information in a clear, structured way

purpose: the term purpose refers to the reason you are writing a piece in the first place. sometimes the purpose of your writing is directly stated, as in a thesis statement, and sometimes it is implied by the arguments and reasons you provide throughout your writing.

quotation-use of the exact words of another writer to illustrate your writing

rebuttal – presenting points in favour of your idea and criticizing the arguments of an opponent

references-a list of all the sources you have cited in your work

restatement -repeating a point in order to explain it more clearly

scanning – is to look for specific information in a text.

signposting – the technique used in presentation to inform the audience about what is coming next

skimming- is to glance through a text for main ideas

source-the original text you have used to obtain an idea or piece of information

summary - is generally much shorter than the original text. It includes only key ideas and omits the details. It may or may not follow the order of the original.

summary report – presents information from several sources on a topic

summary-response essay – requires to respond to the ideas in an essay and come up with a thesis that expresses your opinion

synopsis-a summary of an article or book

synthesis: synthesis involves pulling together your ideas, and sometimes the ideas of others, in order to make or support an argument. Often, in writing, synthesis involves pulling together ideas from different authors that connect on a particular subject or argument to give a bigger picture.

thesis statement – the main idea, claim, or problem stated in the text, which the writer promises to deal with in the text.