13. The sample draft precis may read as follows:

This passage is a description of how Scout started school. She had never looked forward more to anything in her life. On the way to school the girl's brother was careful to explain to her that she was to leave him alone there, as school was different from home; and it certainly was. Scout's teacher, Miss Caroline Fisher, turned out to be young, inexperienced and a stranger in the county. She began the day by reading a ridiculous story about cats to a class of children who knew no better than chop cotton or feed hogs. However, Miss Caroline appeared unaware that the class did not care about imaginative reading at all. Then she wrote the alphabet on the blackboard and made Scout read it. On discovering that the girl was literate, she became very displeased, and told her to tell her father not to teach her any more. Scout was surprised and bewildered, because her father had never taught her; it just happened that reading was something that came to her. When it was about lunch time Miss Caroline wanted to make sure that every child either went home for lunch or had brought his lunch to school. When she discovered that one of the boys, Waiter Cunningharn by name, had not brought his, she only thought he had forgotten it and began offering him money to buy lunch. However, the boy wouldn't take the teacher's money and Miss Caroline became impatient. The class knew the reason-Waiter was so poor that he didn't own a pair of shoes. But the children also knew that the Cunninghams never took anything they couldn't pay back. Scout tried to be helpful and explained to the teacher what the matter was, but Miss Caroline became so indignant that she punished the girl by making her stand in the corner. Now that the draft precis is written, revise it, cut unnecessary words and make sure that you have tied the parts of your statement together with transitions.

14. Summary

A summary and a precis have much in common because a summary also conveys the main idea of a passage, an article, etc. However, there are certain points of difference between them.

These seem to be the following:

1) A precis is a close summary of a paragraph in the proportion 1 to 3, while the length of a summary varies depending upon the amount of detail required in it. It may be a single sentence if that is enough to convey the general idea. The normal proportion of a summary, however, is about I to 10 of the original.

2) Since a summary requires a greater degree of generalization, the writer should use his own words.

3) A summary must have an introduction which clearly states the title, the author's name, the source from which the text is taken and the subject the summary is concerned with.

4) The writer of a summary should avoid such phrases as 'the author says', 'the article reports' and so on. Instead he should simply say what the author says without notiHg that he does so. Sample Summary of the Extract from

15. Various techniques of condensing texts

It has been pointed out that summary writing begins by analysing a skeletal organization of the reading. In order to find or extract the central idea, it is necessary to be able to follow the author's development of the thesis, relating to it all of the ideas presented in the various paragraphs. The student should be able to visualize the compositional pattern. How did the author choose to arrange his ideas? Did the author begin with a generalization? If so, what kind of evidence has he used to support it? How is the evidence arranged? Where is the generalization physically placed? Where is the evidence physically placed? What words lead the reader from one idea to another, from one paragraph to the next one? Why must paragraph three come before paragraph four? And so on. Thus the success of condensing a text largely depends on the student's ability to see through its paragraph structure and paragraph plan. We have already discussed three basic compositional patterns in English: analytical, synthetic and lists. As we know, the analytical paragraph moves away from the main idea, while the synthetic paragraph moves towards it and lists provide with facts, examples, enumerations, and so on. Thus, the main idea may be found either at the beginning or at the end of the text. This difference calls for specific techniques of condensing, which are going to be dealt with in greater detail.

17. The Killer Smog. Although man in advanced countries has stamped out epidemics, he has also created man-made killers which at times become a kind of modern- day Black Death. In early December, 1952, a thick fog hung over London for four days. Nothing so unusual about that, but the smoke from coal fires of factories and homes was trapped near the ground and turned into what is called 'smog'. This is what the newspapers had to say on 8 December 1952: News Chronicle: "Scientists have found that during today's fog there are 870,000 particles of soot in each cubic inch of air against the usual 12,500." Daily Telegraph: "There is no traffic at London Airport. Shipping on the Thames was stopped. Thousands of people did not get milk today. Walkers are playing a dangerous form of blindman's-buff with each other." Some of these events seemed almost amusing. Only later, when the smog cleared, reports began to come in of old people who collapsed on the pavements. Some of them died in the streets from the deadly accumulation of oxides of sulphur in the smog air. When the accidents were finally counted, it turned out that by burning dirty coal, man had in only four terrible days killed 400 of his own kind.

20. To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

The extract from To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee describes how Scout started school. The girl was eager to learn, but she found school very disappointing and her teacher unjust. She did not learn anything that day. Moreover, her teacher, Miss Caroline, who was very young and inexperienced, became displeased with the girl when she discovered that she was literate. Finally Scout was punished unjustly when she was trying to be helpful to Miss Caroline.

To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was immediately successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature. The plot and characters are loosely based on the author's observations of her family and neighbors, as well as on an event that occurred near her hometown in 1936, when she was 10 years old. The novel is renowned for its warmth and humor, despite dealing with the serious issues of rape and racial inequality. The narrator's father, Atticus Finch, has served as a moral hero for many readers and as a model of integrity for lawyers. One critic explains the novel's impact by writing, "In the twentieth century, To Kill a Mockingbird is probably the most widely read book dealing with race in America, and its protagonist, Atticus Finch, the most enduring fictional image of racial heroism.

Practically every person has his or her own hobby; whether it‘s a sport, collecting certain items, or something one takes their time practicing. Personally, I never thought I ever had a hobby. As a matter of fact I wasn’t even sure what a hobby actually was. Then I got to thinking and I finally realized that my hobby was dancing. Yes, I know that to some people dancing is not considered a true hobby; but the way I see it, if I enjoy dancing and spend my precious time doing it, then I have every right to consider it as my special hobby

Life without a hobby is like food without the salt. It is a hobby which makes living interesting. It is a pursuit outside one’s regular work. A hobby gives one joy and pleasure; one does not get tired of it. It is a pastime, relaxation and leisure. In this way, while one is learning something, he is also making best use of his time.  There are many hobbies like drawing, painting, gardening, stamp collecting, photography, reading, sewing, crafts, embroidery, knitting, cooking, pet care, coin collecting, etc. My favorite hobbies are gardening, coin collecting, photography and traveling. Gardening gives me immense pleasure. When I saw seed sown by me growing into beautiful plants and blooming flowers, it gives me a great sense of fulfillment. I enjoy tendering my plants and watering my garden every day. It gives me satisfaction and helps in keeping myself active and busy. I grow flowers and vegetables in my garden. The greenery of plants and sweet fragrance of flowers are the tonics for eyes and mind. In a world full of tension and pollution, it is a great relief to see beautiful flowers and lovely plants.  Another hobby which I pursue is stamp collecting. I have collected hundreds of stamps. It is a pleasure to exchange stamps. I have arranged them in six albums according to the continents. My father who often goes abroad helps me to collect rare stamps.  Each stamp has a story to tell of distant land, strange peoples and the history of nations. I have made many friends in India and abroad by exchanging stamps. Photography is another hobby which is dear to my heart. It gives me a thrill to capture the visual beauty of the world around me. Whenever I see a beautiful flower or a bird in my garden, I catch her in my memory through the lens of my camera.  Traveling is my other passion. Whenever I have an opportunity to visit a new place, whether a village, city, mountain or seaside, I never miss it. It is so thrilling to see a new place and meet different kind of people. Whenever I travel round a new place, I take my camera and shot interesting pictures of people, building, monuments, bazaar etc. It gives me immense satisfaction and pleasure. Though these hobbies are expensive, I love them. 

24. VARIOUS TECHNIQUES OF CONDENSING TEXTS

It has been pointed out that summary writing begins by analysing a skeletal organization of the reading. In order to find or extract the central idea, it is necessary to be able to follow the author's development of the thesis, relating to it all of the ideas presented in the various paragraphs. The student should be able to visualize the compositional pattern. Thus the success of condensing a text largely depends on the student's ability to see through its paragraph structure and paragraph plan. We have already discussed three basic compositional patterns in English: analytical, synthetic and lists. As we know, the analytical paragraph moves away from the main idea, while the synthetic paragraph moves towards it and lists provide with facts, examples, enumerations, and so on. Thus, the main idea may be found either at the beginning or at the end of the text. This difference calls for specific techniques of condensing, which are going to be dealt with in greater detail.

Techniques of Condensing the Analytical Paragraph

A new hobby has grown up in recent years-the hobby of cave exploring, -or 'speleology'. Speleologists are the people who brave the dark wilderness beneath the earth. The wilderness is a hidden world of big caves, of deep vertical holes that plunge through solid rock to depths of thousands of feet, of lakes bigger than cricket pitches, and of labyrinthine tunnels that run and twist for miles on end. For many thousands of years these underground caves have remained unexplored. Yet within them lie many mysteries waiting to be discovered. Over fifty· thousand years ago, when the last Ice Age began to come to an end, primitive man used these caves as his home for protection from bitter weather and dangerous animals. As the cold weather disappeared, he left the caves for the plains, and learned to build huts and defend himself with weapons. But the beginning of the caves goes back farther than the days of the early man. They go back to the forgotten days of pre-history when the only life on earth consisted of myriads of microscopic animals living in the sea. Despite the dangers, people continue to explore the world of caves enthusiastically and speleology is already adding to our knowledge of history. In the Lascaux caves in France were found in 1940 the most beautiful and strange drawings of bison and deer made by primitive man, a proof that early man was not a stupid ape-like creature but a being with artistic impulses. Caves are not only a mute witness to past history. A naturalist has much to learn from them-over two hundred kinds of insects and small animals live in caves. Most of them are blind and white, after thousands of years of living in the dark and cold.

Comment: Since the compositional pattern is analytical,

the article begins with a generalization which is in the topic sentence of the opening paragraph. It is "A new hobby has grown up in recent years-the hobby of cave exploring, or 'speleology'."

Now the writer can follow the author's development of the main line of thought with the help of developers: 'speleology' and 'wilderness'. Note again that the notion 'wilderness' is first introduced at the end of the first paragraph and then developed in the topic sentence of the

next paragraph. This sentence also contains a number of descriptions of 'the hidden world', of which 'caves' would seem the most important, as this notion runs through the rest of the article. This paragraph also introduces 'mysteries' which are then exemplified in the following

paragraphs. Of these examples the writer should choose only the most essential.

This is what the writer may have extracted:

A new hobby has grown up in recent years-the hobby of cave exploring, or 'speleology'; wilderness. The wilderness is a hidden world of big caves; underground

caves have remained unexplored; mysteries . . . . primitive man used these caves as his home for

protection from bitter weather and dangerous animals.

The beginning of the caves goes back ... to pre-history . . . . speleology is already adding to our knowledge of history. In the Lascaux caves in France were found in 1940 the most beautiful and strange drawings of bison and deer, a proof that primitive man was a being with artistic impulses. Now the writer's task is to think about a suitable introduction and present the main facts in an orderly and logical way. To those who are mastering the art -of condensation topical questions may be of great help. In this case they might be the following:

1) What does the article deal with?

2) Why do speleologists explore caves?

3) What contribution is speleology making to science?

Extensive answers to the questions will enable the

writer to cope with the difficulties of condensing the article.

25. Techniques of Condensing the Synthetic Paragraph

In May 1927, at least four different people were planning to fly between New York and Paris. On the morning of 20 May, none of them had yet done so. An unknown American, Charles Lindbergh was the first to try. He took off from New York in his small plane. It was 'heavy with fuel and it seemed it would never get off the ground. Lindbergh hit several wet spots on the airfield and bounced dangerously. He got into the air just in time to avoid a tractor and some telegraph wires at the 'end of the field. For the first eleven hours he flew along the Atlantic

coastline. When he turned towards the open ocean, he had flown almost as far and as long as Alcock and Brown had in 1919. It was getting dark and the worst part of

the flight was just beginning. First, there was freezing fog. For a time he avoided this by flying low over the water. But then the fog came down to the tops of the waves. Lindbergh flew higher

but it was so cold that ice formed on his wings. In the black darkness he shook the ice off by diving and turning sharply. Twenty-four hours passed and he was terribly tired. He was still over the Atlantic in darkness. He ate nothing because he thought it would be easier to stay awake on an empty stomach. Then dawn came. He saw a few fishing boats below. He dived down, switched off his engine and called out: "Which way is Ireland?" The fishermen were too surprised to answer. But a few minutes later he was over the Irish coast. He had navigated

by his own calculations and a few simple instruments. He flew on over England and crossed to France. It was dark again when he reached Paris. A huge, excited crowd of 100,000 people were waiting for him when he landed. He had flown for thirty-three and a half hours. This was one of the first transatlantic flights of the late 20's.

Comment: As the writer reads through the narrative, he discovers that it moves towards the main idea.-'This was one of the first transatlantic flights'-which concludes the story, and the preceding paragraphs build it piece by piece. So in the course of condensing he should underline the main facts related to the conditions of the flight and probably one or two examples of the most dramatic situations the pilot had to cope with. The events here are more important than the words, hence there is little value in underlining words.

This is what the writer might have extracted:

In May 1927 at least four different people were planning to fly between New York and Paris. An American Charles Lindbergh was the first to try. He took off from New York in his small plane. For the first eleven hours he flew along the Atlantic coastline. It was getting dark and the worst part of the flight was just beginning. First, there was freezing fog, ... ice formed on his wings. Twenty-four hours passed and he was terribly tired. He was still over the Atlantic in darkness. Then dawn came ... a few minutes later he was over the Irish coast. He had navigated by his own calculations and a few simple instruments. He flew on over England and crossed to France. He had flown for thirty-three and a half hours. It was dark when he reached Paris. This was one of the first transatlantic flights of the late 20's. A condensation of the synthetic paragraph plan is rather difficult to make because the central idea is single sentence as it stands in the original and must inevitably use his own words. This difficulty can also be overcome with the help of topical questions which may be the following:

1) What event does the story describe?

2) Who made the first transatlantic flight?

3) How long did the flight take?

4) What route did the pilot follow?

5) What difficulties did Lindbergh have to overcome?

The sample draft copy might read as follows:

The story deals with the first transatlantic flight made by an American Charles Lindbergh in 1927. The flight took him thirty-two and a half hours. He flew from New York to Paris across the Atlantic Ocean via Ireland and England. On the way he had many unforeseen difficulties to overcome, such as, freezing fog and ice which formed on his wings, darkness, terrible tiredness and hunger. Lindbergh had navigated the route by his own calculations and a few simple instruments.

28. My room is about 20 feet long and 10 feet wide. On one of the long walls are two big windows going nearly up the ceiling, while on the opposite wall, near one end, is the door. At the other end is a fireplace with a desk and chair beside it and another desk and chair stand between the two windows: on the wall opposite them is a bookcase. The walls are white, with two pictures, one of which hangs above the bookcase. Because it is evening I am sitting at the desk between the windows with a desk-lamp shining on to the paper as I write.

29. My mother's kitchen was large and pleasant. It was always filled with sunlight. Crisp curtains hung on clean windows. The sink was spotless. The sturdy stove was polished. The floor glistened. The glasses and dishes always sparkled. I still remember the spicy smell of gingerbread and lamb curry.

30. The student life is the most important period of our life. Our future hopes depend upon it. At this time our mind is like clay. Clay is a very soft thing. The potter makes various things with this clay. Like clay, our mind also can be shaped in different ways. If the pots etc. are once made by the potter, their shapes cannot be changed. Similarly* if our character is once formed in one way, it cannot be changed easily. If we receive good training in our student life, we shall be good citizens in our future life. If, on the other hand, we do not receive good training, we shall not be good men in future. We should, therefore, be very careful. We must take care so that we may receive good training in our student life. We must learn many good things in our student life. Our main duty is to learn our lessons at school. We must "gain knowledge. Our character must be good. If we become men of character, people will love us. Our teachers will take great care of us. A boy of bad character cannot become a great man. We must learn discipline. Strict discipline at schools is very good for us. it teaches us obedience, punctuality, diligence, regularity, good manners and forbearance. We must learn perseverance. It is at the root of all success. If we are idle, we cannot prepare our lessons. Idle men are never happy. They suffer much. Everybody hates them. All great men of the past were persevering. Hence *re must persevere. If we fail once, we shall try again and again. We must learn the value of time. We should do everything in time. Time will not wait for us. If time is once gone, we cannot get it back. Our work also is not finished. Hence we must not idle away our time. We must take care of our health. If our health is bad, we cannot do anything. Our whole life becomes miserable. A man with bad health dies early. Therefore, we must improve our health. We must be obedient. We shall do what our parents and teachers tell us to do. Obedience is a great virtue for a student. An important part of a student's life is his social life at school. We mix with other boys in the class-room and play-ground. This exercises a great influence in shaping our character. Here we learn the important lesson of give and take, co-operation, easy social manners and thought for others. But we must be careful so that we may not come in touch with bad boys. The student life is the best part of a man's life. At this time our main work is to read and play. We should not think of anything else. When we are students, we are free from cares and anxieties. Our heart is very soft. Our mind is very simple. We pass our time very happily. But if we do not perform our duty, we shall not be happy in future. Hence we must do our duty. We shall then be happy and prosperous in our future life.

31. National holidays: Nauryz , Independence day of Kazakhstan

Independence Day is usually one of the nation’s most important holidays. It tells the story of the nation and represents its most important values; and Kazakhstan is no different. All over the country in the days leading up to December 16, large festivities including concerts, exhibitions and competitions were held to celebrate the 22nd anniversary of Kazakhstan gaining independence in December 1991. In the time since, Kazakhstan has emerged from the shadow of the former Soviet Union’s nearly 70-year communist regime in order to establish one of the region’s strongest economies and peaceful nations. It has worked hard to cultivate its abundant natural resources, has built a new capital nearly from scratch, has become a world leader in the anti-nuclear weapons movement and regularly unites the world’s religious leaders in dialogue. Independent Kazakhstan has been blessed with the resources to build a strong nation, including abundant oil and gas, as well as uranium and rare earth metals. But it has also been the character of the people and policies, such as multi-vector foreign policy that seeks to develop positive relations with all nations, that has allowed it to progress in the uncertainty of the post-Soviet years, according to officials. “On this day (Dec. 16, 1991), we started our Kazakhstan Way. We have implemented a great mission—we began our independence. Time flies,” Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev said during the most recent Independence Day celebration. “Today, what came just after the birth of independent Kazakhstan is already history, receding into eternity. We must judge our past in comparison with our current great achievements. Twenty-two years ago, we could only dream that we could grow our economy. This year, Kazakhstan is among the 50 most competitive countries in the world.” Nazarbayev then went on to list seven assets Kazakhstan gained upon independence, including its land and secure borders, the unity of Kazakhstan’s people, the country’s culture and language, its industry and innovation, the Society of Universal Labor the country is building, the city of Astana and the nation’s sense of global responsibility. “Independence rallied the people under the single shanyrak (top of the Kazakh yurt made from felt) of the assembly, guardian of peace and harmony. Our spiritual unity is the main foundation of the secular state and society,” Nazarbayev said. He also thanked the Kazakh people for their “painstaking work” in building the country’s economy. Kazakhstan also marked Independence Day this year with the presentation by Nazarbayev of state awards to prominent figures in Kazakhstan’s cultural, scientific, health, education, business, military and other spheres for their contributions to the socioeconomic and cultural development of the country. Afterwards, a gala concert and reception were held in honor of Independence Day. Astana’s Alau Ice Palace also hosted days of public skating leading up to the Dec. 16 holiday and held contests and prize giveaways on Independence Day. The rock opera Zheruiyk was shown in the Palace of Peace and Harmony. In Astana’s central square, a public dance party was held with the participation of Kazakh stars. Soloists from the State Philharmonic of Astana  followed by Kazakh stars Ulytau, Yerke, Zhalyn, Retro, the Alaman trio, KZ, Dabyl and soloists Kydyrali Bolmanov, Dos, Assel Omarova, Bakit Shadayeva and Dosymzhan Tanatarov performed on stage. The celebration closed with fireworks. “Every year during [the Independence Day celebrations] we go to the Yessil river with (our) kids to watch the fireworks,” 36-year-old Anton Danilchenko said. “Independence Day is always celebrated as one of the brightest holidays in Kazakhstan, the only other [celebration] that can supersede it is Astana Day in Astana.” “I noticed how with each year the celebrations are becoming grander. The fireworks are larger, it gets more crowded everywhere we go,” said Anton’s wife Kristina Danilchenko.“We want to be in a good mood, we need to take our children out, show them how to celebrate our national holiday and pass on to them this culture and tradition.”

Nauryz,

Nauryz is one of the oldest holidays on Earth. This holiday of spring and the renewed life of the Earth has been celebrated for over five thousand years by many cultures of the Middle and Central Asia and, according to some sources, by eastern Slavs as well. Historical records referring to this holiday can be found in ancient and middle age documents. In the oriental chronology, it corresponds to Navruz, the Iranian New Year. Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Uighurs passed the Nauryz traditions from generation to generation. The Tajiks called it Gulgardon or Gulnavruz, the Tatars refer to it as Nardugan and the Ancient Greeks knew it as Patrich. The roots of this holiday can be traced to old pagan rituals. The celebration was meant to reflect people's love to nature. People have preserved the rituals, and today the holiday has acquired new spiritual and ethical meaning.  This holiday has been celebrated on 22 March, the day of the spring equinox. That's why the Kazakhs call the month of March Nauryz. It was celebrated as the day of the renewed life which comes with the spring. It was the day when the first spring thunder strikes, buds are swelling on the trees and vegetation grows wildly. Nauryz as a non-religious celebration of the spring and renewal is closely linked to some other Kazakh holidays, such as a "farewell to winter" festival. Boys born on this day would be called Nauryzbai or Nauryzbek, and girls Nauryz or Nauryzgul. It was seen as a good omen if it was snowing on that day.  The March snow is usually soft and particularly white. Beautiful girls were often compared to the white snow of Nauzys. In the past, the Kazakh called Nauryz the Day of the People or the Great Day of the People. People believed, the more generous the celebration of Nauryz was the happier the year would be. Therefore, there are so many rituals and festivities related to this holiday. On the eve of the holiday, people would clean their homes, pay back their debts and reconciled with their opponents because, as the old people used to say, if Nauryz entered the house, all diseases and failures would pass it by. On the night before the festival, all vessels in the house would be filled with milk, airan (plain yogurt), grain, and spring water because it meant that people would have a lot of milk, good yield and plenty of rain during the coming year.  During the day, everybody tried to be in good spirits, would give a big hug to each other and wish good fortune and happiness to others. The celebrations would begin with sunrise. There is an old ritual "If you see a spring, clean up its source". At dawn, all adults, youngsters and children would pick up spades, go to an agreed place near a spring or aryk (small water canal) and clean it. There, they would also plant trees under the supervision of respectable old people. During the process, they had to say: "Let a man leave a tree rather than a herd in the people's memory" and "If you cut one tree, you will have to plant ten!"  After the ritual was completed, three messengers went around the village or town and called everybody to join the celebrations. They were dressed in bright festive costumes. Sometimes, they dressed up like heroes of Kazakh fairly-tales: Aldar Kose, Zhirenshe and beautiful Karashash. Then, the show would begin. People enjoyed themselves and congratulated each other with the New Year. They wish each other all the best, sang songs specially composed for this holiday called Nauryz Zhyr, watched wrestling between a man and a woman and took part in the competitions in toung-twisting ("zhanyltpash") or riddle solving ("zhumbak"). A great deal of food was prepared during these days. It symbolized prosperity and wealth in the coming year. At noon, a bull was killed and a special dish was cooked from the meat. It was called "bell-koterer" (posture straightening) because the bull was considered to be one of the strongest animals and meals cooked from its meat would give people strength and stamina. Each family would lay a dastarkhan (festive table). People would sit down at the table at noon. Mullah would read prayers dedicated to ancestors before and after the meal. At the end of the meal, the oldest men among them would give a blessing so that prosperity would never leave the family. The Kazakhs attached special importance to the number of seven during the Nauryz celebrations because it symbolized the seven days of the week, which was considered to be a time unit of the universal eternity. Seven bowls with the Nauryz-kozhe drink (made from seven sorts of seven types of herbs) would be put in front of the aksakals (respectable old people). The meals were composed of seven components, usually meat, salt, fat, onions, wheat, kurt (a type of cheese) and irimshik (a kind of cottage cheese). The celebration always included mass games, traditional horse races and other competitions. The most famous and favourite were the games of "Aikysh-uishysh" (towards each other) and "Audaryspek" where dzhigits (skillful horsemen) had to pull each other down from their saddles. Sport competitions were popular and both boys and girls could take part in them. A girl would invite a dzhigit to have a go and compete with her on one condition: if he wins, he would have the right to marry her, and if she wins he would have to obey her and execute her every desire.  Hence, Nauryz would often turn into a wedding celebration. All people regardless of their gender, age and social position were excused from daily duties and took an equal part in the fun and games. Various ethical bans regarding relations between men and women were lifted during this time, even the relations between the oldest brother-in-law and sister-in-law. (Scientists link this game to free dating and mass entertainment which was widespread when two clans were intermarrying at the time when nature came back to life. Then, all bans and restrictions in the relations between men and women were lifted for a short period of time.) A poetic show would complete the day: two Akyns (poets) took part in a song competition. The competition would be over with the sunset when, according to a common belief, the good defeated the evil. Then, people would start a fire and, carrying torches lit from the fire, would go around the village, sing and dance. That was the end of the festival celebrating the spring renewal and equinox. The history of Nauryz has been complicated. The totalitarian Soviet system did not recognize the existence of any national identity and any reference to traditional heritage was considered to be an anachronism and remnants of the past. Nauryz was cancelled in 1926. It was first recreated in Kazakhstan only in 1988 and was extremely popular. Officially, Nauryz was recognized on 15 March 1991 by a Presidential Decree. The President declared 22 March, the day of the spring equinox, a holiday.  Since then, Nauryz has been widely celebrated across the whole country. Of course, the modern festival is essentially different from the old. It is not only about staged shows, ornate yurts, and delicious Nauryz-kozhe. It is also about charitable events, folk sporting games, tending of plants, planting trees, cleaning of parks, streets and squares. Nowadays, it has become a truly national holiday of spring, work and unity. It is dear to all the peoples living in the multinational Kazakhstan. The ancient holiday of Nauryz has naturally become a part of the modern life, preserving the old traditions. 

32. Kazakh substantial meal

First of all the guest of Kazakhstan family regaled with kumiss (the drink based on mare milk), shubat or airan, next meal was tea with milk or cream, baursaks, raisins, irimshik, kurt. Then the guest was tasting horse-flesh or mutton snacks - kazi, shuzhuk, zhal, zhaya, sur-et, karta, kabirga. Wheat flour cookies were very common too. The main meal of every dastarkhan and one of the most delicious for Kazakh people was Kazakh style cooked meat. Boiled meat was served in large uncut pieces. The host was cutting the meat himself and treat every guest: pelvic bones and shank for honourable old people, brisket for son-in-law or daughter-in-law, neck-bone for girls and so on. The most honorable guest received particular method cooked head of the ram. The guest should part the head between people around the dastarkhan obeying to ancient ritual showing respectful attitude to guests, old people, kids, near and far relations. The delicious aromatic meat was eaten with thin boiled pieces of pastry. Excellent addition to this dish was rich flavoured meat bouillon - sorpa, served in phials. Kumiss and tea were the last dishes of the meal. Today Kazakh meal is something different from the old one but still it is imbued with ancient laws of hospitability. On the contrary the hospitability is larger then ever for now because not only Kazakhs but people of various nations (Kazakhstan is a multinational country) have a meal around the dastarkhan: Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians, Uzbeks, Germans, Uigurs, Koreans and more. All these nations made their contribution on Kazakhs cookery. Kazakhstan cuisine includes not only traditional national Kazakhstan dishes but the best dishes of Uzbek, Russian, Tatar, Korean and other cookeries. That’s why Kazakh cuisine saving its national characteristic features has some international features. The assortment of food groceries was changed slightly. During its long history Kazakhstan people gathered a huge experience in cooking dishes from meat and milk. And modern times filled it with a large range of vegetables, fruit, fish, sea stuff, baked, flour dishes and confectionery. But still the most popular Kazakhstan national foodstuff is meat. From olden times Kazakh cookery was special due to its original technology. Some features of Kazakh people living left a mark on Kazakh style of food cooking. The traditional national Kazakhstan cookery is based on boiling. Exactly boiling helps to cook meat with a lot of delicate tastes, gives it softness and aroma. Kazakh people placed high emphasis on long-term storage of foodstuff. A huge part of meat was prepared for future use being salted, dried. Delicatessen was cooked mainly from horse meat - kazi, shuzhuk, zhal, zhaya, karta and others. Milk and milk products were widely spread. The preference was for the sour milk products because it was easier to save it during nomadic life. Bread was usually made like cookies. The most popular baked dish is baursaki. The ancient plates and dishes were made from leather, wood, ceramics. Every family had cast-iron cauldron (kazan) for cooking. The tea was boiled in cast-iron jugs, later in samovars.

33.

41. Long years ago, a valley in Ecuador’s Andes was accessible to all. Then came a great landslide that cut the valley off from the outside world. An early settler who chanced to be outside the valley when the earthquake occurred was never able to return. Before he died, he described the place whence he came. A place where it never rained or snowed, it was a virtual utopia until a strange disease rendered everyone blind. Because people then considered sin to be the cause of disease, the settler was chosen to leave the valley to find priests to build a shrine that would buy holy help from the blindness. The mountain moved, however, so the settler could never return. Lost to civilization, the valley was forgotten by the outside world and the disease ran its course. After fifteen generations had passed, the ways of the blind became the custom and culture. It then chances that a young man inadvertently enters the valley. The stranger named Núñez is a mountaineer who has seen the world. While guiding a party of climbers, he falls from a mountain during the night. Although he tumbles more than a thousand feet, he survives. The next morning he climbs further downward until he finds himself among meadows dotted with flocks of llamas. He sees a cluster of strange windowless stone huts and remarks to himself that the builder “must have been as blind as a bat.” After shouting to three man who cannot tell where he is, Núñez realizes that he must be in the legendary Country of the Blind. He advances toward the men with the confidence of a sighted man thinking of the old proverb: In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is king. He tells the men that he comes from Bogota in a country where people can see. Sensing that Núñez is not like them, the men hold him fast and examine him with their hands. As they perceive the malformation of his eyes, Núñez assures them that he can see. Because Núñez appears to be speaking nonsense...

"The Country of the Blind" is a short story written by H. G. Wells. It was first published in the April 1904 issue of The Strand Magazine and included in a 1911 collection of Wells's short stories, The Country of the Blind and Other Stories. It is one of Wells's best known short stories, and features prominently in literature dealing with blindness. Wells later revised the story, with the expanded version first published by an English private printer, Golden Cockerel Press, in 1939. While attempting to summit the unconquered crest of Parascotopetl (a fictitious mountain in Ecuador), a mountaineer named Nuñez (prn: noon-yes) slips and falls down the far side of the mountain. At the end of his descent, down a snow-slope in the mountain's shadow, he finds a valley, cut off from the rest of the world on all sides by steep precipices. Unbeknownst to Nuñez, he has discovered the fabled "Country of the Blind". The valley had been a haven for settlers fleeing the tyranny of Spanish rulers, until an earthquake reshaped the surrounding mountains, cutting the valley off forever from future explorers. The isolated community prospered over the years, despite a disease that struck them early on, rendering all newborns blind. As the blindness slowly spreads over many generations, the people's remaining senses sharpened, and by the time the last sighted villager had died, the community had fully adapted to life without sight. Nuñez descends into the valley and finds an unusual village with windowless houses and a network of paths, all bordered by curbs. Upon discovering that everyone is blind, Nuñez begins reciting to himself the refrain, "In the Country of the Blind, the One-Eyed Man is King". He realises that he can teach and rule them, but the villagers have no concept of sight, and do not understand his attempts to explain this fifth sense to them. Frustrated, Nuñez becomes angry, but the villagers calm him, and he reluctantly submits to their way of life, because returning to the outside world seems impossible. Nuñez is assigned to work for a villager named Yacob. He becomes attracted to Yacob's youngest daughter, Medina-Saroté. Nuñez and Medina-Saroté soon fall in love with one another, and having won her confidence, Nuñez slowly starts trying to explain sight to her. Medina-Saroté, however, simply dismisses it as his imagination. When Nuñez asks for her hand in marriage, he is turned down by the village elders on account of his "unstable" obsession with "sight". The village doctor suggests that Nuñez's eyes be removed, claiming that they are diseased and are affecting his brain. Nuñez reluctantly consents to the operation because of his love for Medina-Saroté. However, at sunrise on the day of the operation, while all the villagers are asleep, Nuñez, the failed King of the Blind, sets off for the mountains (without provisions or equipment), hoping to find a passage to the outside world, and escape the valley.

In the original story, Nuñez escapes the valley, but becomes trapped in the mountains, which ultimately leads to his death. In the revised and expanded 1939 version of the story, Nuñez sees from a distance that there is about to be a rock slide. He attempts to warn the villagers, but again they scoff at his "imagined" sight. He flees the valley during the slide, taking Medina-Saroté with him.

Characters[edit]

• Nuñez – a mountaineer from Bogotá, Colombia

• Yacob – Nuñez's master

• Medina-Saroté – the youngest daughter of Yacob

15