13. The structure of composite sentence.

Unlike a simple sentence that consists of a single independent clause with no

dependent clauses, a composite sentence is built up by two or more predicative

lines. It can be defined as a structural and semantic unity of two or more

syntactic constructions each having a predicative center of its own, built on

the basis of a syntactic connection and used in speech communication as a unit

of the same rank as the simple sentence.

The following characteristics should be kept in mind when discussing

composite sentences:

- the type of syntactic connection (coordination or subordination);

- the rank of predicative constructions, that is, the place occupied by the

predicative construction in the hierarchy of clauses;

- presence or absence of connectors and their character.

A general classification of composite sentences can be based on the first two

criteria – the type of syntactic connection and the rank of predicative constructions.

Here compound and complex sentences are singled out. In the compound sentence

predicative constructions of the high rank are connected by means of coordination

while in the complex sentence – by means of subordination.

According to the way in which parts of the composite sentence are joined

together, two types can be singled out:

1) syndetic (by means of connectors);

2) asyndetic (without any connectors).

The connector can either be a conjunction, a pronoun or an adverb. If it is a

conjunction, its function in the sentence is to join the clauses together. If it is a

pronoun or an adverb (i. e. a relative pronoun or a relative adverb), then it serves as

a part of one of the two clauses which are joined (a subject, object, adverbial

modifier, etc.), and also joins the two clauses together.

There can be disputable cases when it is not quite clear a composite sentence

is syndetic or asyndetic. It depends on the way we view a particular word.

e.g. The one thing she seems to aim at is Individuality; yet she cares nothing

for

individuals.

The second clause of the composite sentence opens with the word yet, so we

may say that it is an adverb and the connection is asyndetic, or else, that it is a

conjunction and the connection is syndetic.

14. Text as an Object of Linguistic Research

The text is a unit of language in use. It applies to any passage, spoken or

written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole – a semantic unit. The

text is the object of studies of the branch of linguistics called text linguistics. Text

lingustics is a relatively new branch of language studies that deals with texts as

communication systems. At the early stage of its development in the 60s of the 20th

century, text linguistics dealt mainly with ways of expressing cohesion and

coherence and distribution of the theme and the rheme of an utterance according to

the rules of the functional sentence perspective. Its original aims lay in uncovering

and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however,

evolved from this approach to a point in which text is viewed in much broader

terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an entire

text. Contemporary text linguistics studies the text and its structure, its categories

and components as well as ways of constructing texts. Text linguistics takes into

account the form of the text, but also its setting, i.e. the way in which it is situated

in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or

spoken) text as well as its addressee are taken into consideration in their respective

(social and/or institutonal) roles in the specific communicative context. In general

it is an application of linguistic analysis at the much broader level of text, rather

than just a sentence or word.

Despite the fact that there are many publications devoted to problems of text

linguistics, there does not exist an adequate definition of the text that would find

satisfaction with all researchers. The difficulties that arise when trying to work out

a universally acceptable definition of the text can be explained by the fact that

scholars study the text in its various aspects: grammatical, stylistic, semantic,

functional and so on.

The text can be studied as a product (text grammar) or as a process (theory

of text). The text-as-a-product approach is focused on the text cohesion, coherence,

topical organization, illocutionary structure and communicative functions; the textas-

a-process perspective studies the text production, reception and interpretation.

Text can be understood as an instance of (spoken or written) language use

(an act of parole), a relatively self-contained unit of communication. As a

‘communicative occurrence’ it meets seven criteria of textuality (the constitutive

principles of textual communication): cohesion, coherence, intentionality,

acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality, and three regulative

principles of textual communication: efficiency, effectiveness and appropriateness

(cf. de Beaugrande and Dressler 1981, Malmjaer 1991)

Regulative Principles of Textual Communication

The principle of efficiency requires that a text should be used with a

minimum effort - hence the use of plain (stereotyped and unimaginative) language

which, however boring and unimpressive, is easy to produce and comprehend.

In contrast, effectiveness presumes leaving a strong impression and the

creation of favourable conditions for attaining a communicative goal; this

presupposes the use of creative (original, imaginative) language which, however

effective, may lead to communicative breakdown.

The principle of appropriateness attempts to balance off the two above

principles by seeking an accord between the text setting and standards of textuality.