2.4 Northern ireland english

It should be stated first of all that English pronunciation standards in Northern Ireland and in the Republic of Eire are different. The explanation lies in history.

In the Middle Ages almost the whole of Ireland was Irish speaking. Nowadays, however, native speakers of Irish are few in number and are confined to rural areas even though Irish is the official language of Ireland and is taught in schools. The English language in Southern Ireland was originally introduced from the West and West Midlands of England and still shows signs of this today. This kind of English has spread to cover most of the Irish Republic. Naturally the pronunciation of these areas retains features of western parts of England.

The English of northern parts of the island with its centre in Belfast has its roots in Scotland, as large numbers of settlers came to this part from the south-west of Scotland from the seventeenth century onwards. Now speaking about Northern Ireland, it is true to say that English here is not homogeneous. Areas of the far north are heavily Scots-influenced. Other parts are marked by less heavily Scots-influenced varieties of English. It is, of course, obvious that the language distinction is not coterminous with the political division of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, some areas of the Republic, Donegal, for instance, speak N. Ir. Eng. (Northern Ireland English), while some of the Northern provinces speak S. Ir. Eng. (Southern Ireland English).

In this chapter we shall deal with Northern Ireland English pronunciation.

Vowels

The vowel system is similar to that of Scottish accents, post-vocalic retroflex frictionless sonorant [r] being used as in Scotland.

[ı]: pit [pıt], fir [fir], bird [bırd];

[i:]: bee [bi:], beer [bi:r];

[e]: pet [pet], bed [bed];

[ε]: bay [bε], bear [bεr];

[л]: but [bлt];

[a]: pat [pat], bard [bard];

[u]: put [put], boot [but], pull [pul];

[o]: boat [bot], board [bord];

[o:]: paw [po:], doll [do:l];

[o]: cot [kot];

[ai]: buy [baı], tide [taıd];

[au]: bout [baut];

[oı]: boy [boı].

The actual realization of a vowel may vary considerably according to the following phoneme:

1. in words like bay, say the vowel is a monophthong [ε], preconsonantally it may be a diphthong of the type [εә — ıә]: gate [gıәt];

2. [ı], [u] are fairly central;

3. [o:] and [o] contrast only before [p, t, k];

4. [aı], [au] are very variable;

5. realization of [a:] may vary considerably.

Consonants

1. [1] is mainly clear;

2. intervocalic [t] is often a voiced flap [d]: city ['sıdi:];

3. between vowels [ð] may be lost: mother ['mo:әr];

4. [h] is present./22/

2.5 American-based pronunciation standards of english

The American variant of English has been very thoroughly described by many prominent scholars both in this country and in the USA. In this book, however, we shall try to follow the conception introduced by A.D.Shweitzer in his sociolinguistic approach to the treatment of contemporary speech situation in America.

The sociolinguistic situation in the United States is very complicated. It is moulded by certain linguistic, cultural, historic, demographic, geographic, political and other factors.

Generally speaking, the situation in the USA may be characterized as exoglossic, i.e. having several languages on the same territory, the balance being in favour of American English.

It is true, of course, that the formation of the American Standard underwent the influence of minorities languages, but its starting point was the English language of the early 17th century. However, time has passed, American English has drifted considerably from English English though as yet not enough to give us ground to speak of two different languages. Thus we speak of the national variant of English in America.

American English shows a lesser degree of dialect than British English due to some historical factors: the existence of Standard English when first English settlers came to America, the high mobility of population, internal migrations of different communities and so on. As regards pronunciation, however, it is not at all homogeneous. There are certain varieties of educated American speech. In the USA three main types of cultivated speech are recognized: the Eastern type, the Southern type and Western or General American.

1. The Eastern type is spoken in New England, and in New York city. It bears a remarkable resemblance to Southern English, though there are, of course, some slight differences.

2. The Southern type is used in the South and South-East of the USA. It possesses a striking distinctive feature — vowel drawl, which is a specific way of pronouncing vowels, consisting in the diphthongization and even triphthongization of some pure vowels and monophthongization of some diphthongs at the expense of prolonging ("drawling") their nuclei and dropping the glides.

3. The third type of educated American speech is General American (GA), also known as Northern American or Western American spoken in the central Atlantic States: New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin and others. GA pronunciation is known to be the pronunciation standard of the USA. There are some reasons for it. GA is the form of speech used by the radio and television. It is mostly used in scientific, cultural and business intercourse. Also in two important business centres — New York and St. Louis — GA is the prevailing form of speech and pronunciation, though New York is situated within the territory where Eastern American is spoken, and St. Louis is within the region of Southern American. In this chapter we shall give an outline of GA accent. We will then point to differences between this accent and RP.

Vowels

1. There is no strict division of vowels into long and short in GA, though some American phoneticians suggest that certain GA vowels are tense and likely to be accompanied by relative length: [i] in seat, [u:] in pool.

They also admit that a slight rise in tongue position during the pronunciation of tense vowels leads to a diphthongal quality of tense vowels which contrasts to a monophthongal quality of lax vowels.

2. Classification of vowels according to the stability of articulation is the most controversial subject in GA. Some diphthongs are treated in GA as biphonemic combinations. The inventory of GA diphthongs varies from three to twelve phonemes. Following D.A.Shakhbagova we distinguish here five diphthongs in GA: [eı], [aı], [oı], [au], [ou].

3. Another very important feature that causes different interpretations of diphthongs and vowel length in GA is the pronunciation of [r] sound between a vowel and a consonant or between a vowel and a silence: turn [tз:rn], bird [bз:rd], star [sta:r].

It has been estimated that 2/3 of American population pronounce [r] and 1/3 omit it. Thus GA is rhotic in words like far, core, etc. (when [r] follows the vowels and ends the word), this sound is consonantal and non-syllabic according to Ch. Thomas. It involves the characteristic hindering of the free flow of breath which we associate with consonants. The sound [r] in far closes the syllable more definitely than in British Received Pronunciation of the word [fa:]. On the other hand, there is a vocalic, or vowel-like and syllabic [r], that occurs in words like bird, murmur (after a vowel and before a consonant). Ch.Thomas writes that in such cases we should better transcribe the words bird and murmur like [brd] and [mrmr]. In such cases [r] is responsible for the characteristic vowel-like quality within the syllable; it is responsible for syllabic quality as well. That's why Ch.Thomas says that [r] syllabic in bird and [r] non-syllabic in far should be transcribed differently. According to V.A.Vassilyev it is still the vowel of the word that forms a syllable ([з:] in bird; [o:] in corn, etc.), not the syllabic [r] sound. He mentioned although that all the vowel sounds in pre-[r] position sound more like [ә]. [r] gives the preceding vowel a retroflex colouring. It means that the tip of the tongue glides to the retroflex position without, however, staying there long enough to produce a full-fledged retroflex [r] sound, [r] also prolongs the vowel a little. V.A.Vassilyev uses the term "[r]-compensating" vowels (suggested by A.L.Trakhterov) for the vowels in such words in British Received Pronunciation.

4. One more peculiar feature of pronunciation of vowels in American English is their nasalization, when they are preceded or followed by a nasal consonant (e.g. m such words as take, small, name, etc.). Nasalization is often called an American twang. It is incidental and need not be marked in phonemic transcription.

5. GA front vowels are somewhat different from RP. Vowels [i:], [ı] are distributed differently in GA and RP.

In words like very, pity GA has [i:] rather than [ı]. In word final position it is often even diphthongized.

Vowel [e] is more open in GA. It also may be diphthongized before [p], [t], [k]: let [lεәt].

6. There are four mixed or central vowels in GA: [з], [ә], [л], [a]. They differ markedly from RP vowels in articulation and distribution.

7. The three RP vowels [o], [æ], [a:] correspond to only two vowels in GA — [a] and [æ]. This combined with the articulatory differences between RP [o] and GA [a] and a difference in vowel distribution in many sets of words makes it very complicated. The following chart vividly shows it:

RP GA

Dad [æ] [æ]

dog [o] [a]

path [a:] [æ]

ance [a:] [æ]

half [a:] [æ]

Besides, word distribution of [o:], [o] in RP and GA is completely different. GA [o] is intermediate in quality between the RP [o:] and [o]. In its production the lips are considerably less rounded.

8. Now to the qualities of GA diphthongs.

a) the diphthong [eı] is closer in GA as opposed to RP;

b) very front realization of [зu] such as in RP is not found in GA;

c) the nucleus of [au] tends to be more advanced in GA;

d) since GA is a rhotic accent with non-prevocalic [r], it has the consequence that the following RP vowels (derived historically from vowel + [r]) do not occur in GA: [ıә] in dear — GA [dır], [εә] in dare — GA [deır], [uә] in tour — GA [tur].

Consonants

1. The RP allophonic differentiation of [1] does not exist in GA. In all positions [1] is fairly dark.

2. Intervocalic [t] as in pity is most normally voiced. The result is neutralization of the distribution between [t] and [d] in this position, i.e. latter, ladder. The original distinction is preserved through vowel length with the vowel before [t] being shorter.

In words like twenty, little [t] may even drop out. Thus winner and winter, for example, may sound identical.

3. GA [r] is articulated differently from RP one. The impression is one of greater retroflexion (the tip of the tongue is curled back further than in RP).

4. The "wh" spelling is represented in GA by [m] sound (or sometimes transcribed as [hw]. So most American speakers make a clear distinction between "wh" and "w" words: where — ware, which — witch.

5. The sonorant [j] is usually weakened or omitted altogether in GA between a consonant (especially a forelingual one) and [u:] as in the words: news [nu:z], Tuesday ['tu:zdı], student ['stu:dәnt], suit [su:t], tube [tu:b], stupid ['stu:pid], during ['du:riŋ].

Non-systematic Differences between General American and Received Pronunciation

A. 1. Many differences involve the pronunciation of individu­al words or groups of words. Here are some of these:

RP GA

cordial ['ko:dıәl] [‘korjәl]

either ['aıðә] [‘i:ðәr]

lever ['li:vә] ['levәr]

schedule [∫edju:l] ['skedjәl]

shone [∫on] [∫oun]

tomato [tә'ma:tәu] [tә'meıtou]

vase [va:z] [veız]

2. Words apparatus, data, status can be pronounced with either [æ] or [eı] in GA, but only with [eı] in RP.

3. Words like hostile, missile, reptile have final [aıl] in RP. In GA they may have [әl].

B. Stress Differences

1. In words of French origin GA tends to have stress on the final syllable, while RP has it on the initial one:

RP GA

ballet [‘bæleı] [bae'lei]

beret [‘berı] [bә'reı]

2. Some words have first-syllable stress in GA whereas in RP the stress may be elsewhere.

RP GA

address [ә'dres] ['ædres]

cigarette [sigә'ret] ['sıgәrәt]

magazine [mægә'zi:n] ['mægazın]

research [ri'sз:t∫] ['rısәt∫]

adult [ә’dлlt] [‘ædлlt]

inquiry [ıŋ'kwaıәrı] ['ıŋkwaıәrı]

3. Some compound words have stress on the first element in GA and in RP they retain it on the second element: weekend, ice­cream, hotdog, New Year.

4. Polysyllabic words ending in -ory, -ary, -mony have secondary stress in GA, often called "tertiary": laboratory ['læbrә,torı], dictionary ['dık∫,nәrı]./22/

CONCLUSION

English is the national language of England proper the USA, Australia and some provinces of Canada. It was also at different times imposed on the inhabitants of the former and present British colonies and protectorates as well as other Britain- and USA-dominated territories, where the population has always stuck to its own mother tongue.

In the United Kingdom RP is a unique national standard. Therefore RP has always been and still is the “prestigious” national standard pronunciation, the so-called implicitly accepted social standard. In spite of the fact that RP speakers form a very small percentage of the British population, it has the highest status of British English pronunciation and is genuinely regionless.

During studying this work we tried to find out the characteristic features of the present day varieties of the English language of the United Kingdom and beyond the bounds of it. We have done it by solving assigned tasks:

1. We gave the definition to the notion “dialect”.

2. We determined the history and geography of dialects spread.

3. We found out the difference between the dialects and the standard language.

Dialect is a variety of a language. A dialect may be distinguished from other dialects of the same language by features of any part of the linguistic structure - the phonology, morphology, or syntax. The label dialect, or dialectal, is attached to substandard speech, language usage that deviates from the accepted norm. On the other hand the standard language can be regarded as one of the dialects of a given language.

In considering the history and development of the English language we may maintain that a regional variety of English is a complex of regional standard norms and dialects. Owing to specific ways of development, every regional variety is characterized by a set of features identical to a variety of English.

The comparative analysis of the phonetic system of the regional varieties of English pronunciation shows the differences in the pronunciation in the system of consonant and vowel phonemes.

The local dialects on the British Isles are being gradually replaced by regional variants of the national language, i. e. by a literary standard with a proportion of local dialect features. On the other hand, it is important to note that urban dialects are undergoing developments of a new type, and the phonetic differences between urban varieties seem to be on the increase.

American English and British English are two equitable variants of the same language, because their structural peculiarities, especially their word-formation system, syntax and morphology, as well as their word-stock and phonetic system are essentially the same. American standard is a slight modification of the norms accepted on the British Isles.

Local variations in the USA are relatively small. What is called by tradition American dialects is closer in nature to regional variants of the literary national language.

The so-called local dialects on the British Isles and in the USA are used only by the rural population and only for the purposes of oral communication. In both variants local distinctions are more marked in pronunciation, less conspicuous in vocabulary and insignificant in grammar.

The study of regional linguistic variation is very important. The more we know about regional variation and change in the use of English, the more we will come to appreciate the individuality of each of the varieties which we call dialects, and the less we are likely to adopt demeaning stereotypes about people from other parts of the country.

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