2.2. Translation of terminology

Scientific and Technical Terminology

Aspects of Scientific and Technical Translation

Scientific and Technical Terminology

Terminology is neither emotional nor ambiguous; the terms have narrow meaning and limited field of usability. Terms may be simple words or multiword expressions. Syntactically, there is nothing to distinguish terms from ordinary language, although there is a strong tendency for terms to be nouns, often compound nouns. Terms tend to be less ambiguous. While a general language word may represent more than one concept in a system of concepts, there is frequently a one-to-one mapping between terms and the concepts they represent. For example the word hotspot in computer terminology – the geographic boundary covered by a WiFi wireless access point; in economics – to hedge – to limit the financial risk by a countertbalancing transaction; spread – difference between two prices.

However, there are examples of terms which are ambiguous. For example, in economics the term receipt is defined as follows: receiving or being received; money received in business contrasted with expenditures; written statement that something has been received.

In modern scientific texts, there is an exchange of words between particular fields of science. It is a result of collaboration among specialists in related sciences and it has been proved successfully in many fields. Even common words in unusual collocation may define a technical style. The tendency nowadays may even lead to more frequent occurrence of common words in scientific and technical English. Technical terms may pass into the general language. When this happens, a word used by a restricted group of people in a restricted situation becomes used more widely by more people: e.g. hardware, bug, firewall, cracker, wizard, washout, trader, broker, underwriting.

Selection of lexical units also complies with the requirement of precise transmitting of thoughts and ideas. Scientific style is conceptual, typical word classes are nouns, possibly adjectives, and mainly technical expressions (terminology). Terminology is carefully chosen in order to be unequivocal. Subjective and expressive expressions generally do not occur in the style. The more scientific the style is, the more specific the terms are. In the particular scientific branches and their language we can get by with low lexical variety, therefore the index of repetition is quite high. Vocabulary is also stereotyped as well as syntax is.

Besides the terminology specific for a particular scientific disciplines, there are also used so called semiterms used in this style. Semiterms are words that, unlike the specific terms, occur in a broad range of meanings, they are common for number of scientific disciplines (process, effect, feature, to function, to operate, to effectuate, to modify, etc.).

Literary expressions aren’t a rare phenomenon in this style. Expressions such as negligible, obviate, propagate create a stiff impression. Typical expressions are even those of everyday usage such as use, show, call, write, consider, treat, maintain, etc.

Preferring more typical expressions is in compliance with the efforts to achieve plain English. This characteristic feature is used in case when long and stiff expressions are grossly unfactual, deceptive, evasive, or highly confusing.

So, terminology varies significantly with particular field of science (business/finance, information technology, automotive industry, chemistry, engineering, environment, law, medicine, social sciences, and many others). All the branches mentioned above have their own vocabulary and the terminology.

Aspects of Scientific and Technical Translation

Fortunately, problem cases in terminology translation are much less frequent than in general vocabulary. However, terminology poses other sorts of problem. First, there is the problem of size. Second, there is the problem of consistency.

With respect to the second problem, TL offers a considerable advantage. This is because once a term has been translated, it is possible to store the term and its translation, and ensure that the term is translated consistently throughout texts.

Of course, this is partly a solution to the problem of size also, because it ensures that the research and effort that goes into finding a translation for a term is not duplicated by other translators working with the same system. However, it is only a partial solution, because there is a seemingly inexorable increase in terminology in many subject areas. Many hours of research are put into the recognition and documentation of new terms and their translational equivalents in other languages. To alleviate this problem, many translators and translation bureaus make use of termbanks, either pre-existing, or constructed in-house.

Termbanks are basically database which contains many thousands of entries, one for every term. These entries consist, just like dictionary entries, of several fields, but the type of information given in these fields is rather different from that which one finds in an ordinary dictionary. Partly, this is because the proper documentation of a term requires specific information about the provenance of the entry and about when it was created and when modified. Other information will typically concern related terms (synonyms, antonyms, abbreviations, superordinate terms and hyponyms), subject area (e.g. pharmaceutical products vs. sports goods), and sources of further information (e.g. specialist dictionaries or reference books). On the other hand, information about grammatical properties and pronunciation is typically rather scant. This is partly because terms are very often new words, or loan words, and typically follow the regular morphological rules of a language. Similarly, the lack of phonological  information is partly because the entries are oriented towards written material, but also because it is expected that the terms will be phonologically  regular (i.e. they will follow the normal rules for the language, or the normal rules that apply to loans words).

When translating official documents, it is necessary to get informed about appropriate terminology, established phrases and formulas specific for the given style in the target language. As far as the fundamental function of official style is to convey information –relevant and contents related – as precisely and clearly as possible, then formulas often play the role of terms. A translator needs to take this into consideration and to avoid any attempt to achieve linguistic and lexical variety, to modernize the style or to make it more accessible. Quite the opposite, a translator should hold on to such expressive means that are used in similar target language documents even if they differ slightly or considerably from the source language expressive means.

Business style can be easily recognized by the business correspondence. Among them are inquiries, offers, orders, invoices, claims and complaints.

There are fixed patterns and structures that are different in SL and TL. A translator must be aware of them in order to achieve uniformity and proper comprehensibility of translation. A very frequent structure is causative structure. It is mainly the following one: MAKE + N + ADJ E.g.: This makes the problem easy. – This makes/renders the metal hard.

The logical word order in the sentence is one of the key features of scientific and technical style. If the principle of logical word order in the sentence would not be respected by a translator, and the English word order would be preserved in the TL translation, we might be introducing such a translation to a recipient that would not comply with the object of communication intended in the ST. E.g.: These phenomena will not be considered in the present book.

The principle of logical word ordering is equally applicable for ordering of clauses within a complex sentence. Formal structures and complex sentences without ellipses are predominant in scientific and technical style. That and which are not omitted in English subordinate nominal clauses. One of the most frequent expressive means that indicate relations between clauses are conditional relative conjunctions (if, unless), other linking elements are providing, provided, on condition. Another frequent prepositions are those of temporal nature (before, as, while, as soon as, when, until, once, after), of consequence (so that, with the result that, as a result of, in consequence of, consequently, therefore,whence) and those of cause (because, since, as, because of, on account of, owing to, due to).

The syntactic structures may have (mainly in mathematics and logic) the nature of terms, it does not mean that a translator is supposed to translate them literally. Precise and comprehensible transfer of relevant information is fundamental. Therefore, translators can break the sentence units and rebuild them, if it is on behalf of clarity. The form is secondary when dealing with scientific and technical texts. What is primary is the content, which happen to be very complex and a translator mustn’t make the understanding of the text more difficult to the reader of the TT by using cumbersome, complex and intricate clause constructions.

Condensation has already been mentioned as a characteristic feature of scientific and technical style. When translating into TL, it is necessary to enlarge and specify these condensed structures. It is possible to do it by adding clauses containing finite verb forms.

The structure of headlines in English scientific style differs from the structure of the headlines in Ukrainian. English headlines are typical for repeated occurrence of the same lexical unit (mainly the scientific and administrative styles tend to repeat pronouns).

Standardized terminology system in exact sciences (chemistry, medicine, and some technical disciplines), it is a possible way to achieve equivalence. On the other hand, the humanity studies differ in this aspect. They reflect immense diversity of cultural traditions and social structures. Therefore, equivalence cannot be achieved easily. It is crucial to analyze the scientific text’s content first and then search for equivalents complying with the standard of TL. In many cases, translator has to choose an alternative solution when standard method of translation cannot be applied, for example periphrastic form. It is necessary to be aware of the fact that the description is very explicit when translating into a language that is more implicit; the asymmetry cannot be neglected, it would lead to redundancy otherwise. Other types of shift can be observed also in terms of concrete/abstract or specific/general expressions.

Exercise1. Translate the following business terms into Ukrainian.

Stockholders, shares, stock exchange, sole proprietor, co-owners, profits, drop of sales, to reduce prices, grain production, insurance company, retail trade, to achieve profit, applicant, competitive, franchiser, royalty payment, subsidiary, a parent company, Executive board, competitiveness, Executive director, borrowing, surplus value, payroll tax, payroll record, distributed profit, offer for goods, liabilities, manufacturing industry, income declaration, fiscal incentives, consumer credit, exchange crisis, cash cover, claim damages, cancel an order, bond broker, taxation authority, to earn a salary, labor supply, the health of an economy, carrying on a business, output of goods and services, resource allocation, Gross Domestic Product, the rate of economic growth, to promote economic growth, to make a bid, bill of exchange, bargain, lend-lease, profitability, profitable business.

Exercise 2. Translate the following scientific terms into Ukrainian.

process (v), processing (n), processor (n); structure (n), structural (adj), sructuralize (v) structureless (adj), structurally (adv); compose (v), composition (n); specific (adj), specification (n), specify (v); application (n), apply (v), applied (adj); recognition (n), recognize (v); adjustment (n), adjust (v); connection (n), connect (v); survive (v), survival (n); relatively (adv), relative (adj); researcher (n), research (n), research (v), computer (n), compute (v), computation(n), computational (adj); illustrate (v), illustration (n), illustrative (adj); represent (v), representation (n), representative (adj), representant (n); provider (n), provide (v), provision (n); communicate (v), communicative (adj), communication (n); manage (v), manager (n), managerial (adj); original (adj), originate (v), origin (n).

Exercise 3. Translate the following scientific and technical terms into Ukrainian.

a host of fine structures; to split into thousands of branches; subsequent response of the network; to correspond to the input pattern; to respond to particular properties; feature discovery; determination of the weights; error-correction learning; to be proportional to the total weighted output; to bear a greater resemblance to real neurones; rough approximations; to specify the strength of the influence; information processing paradigm; to work in unison; to solve specific problems; the advent of computers; major setback; an initial period; a period of frustration and disrepute; convincing technology; a resurgence of interest; to derive meaning; to perform at maximum efficiency; a sensory system; intangible attributes; a more precise definition; to pivot jointed segments; a system driven by compressed gases; a pump to pressurize the hydraulic fluid; wired to an electrical circuit; to manipulate electrical valves; closely resembles a human arm; mounted to a stationary base structure; to be controlled by remote; to encounter an obstacle; image-recognition software; areas with rough terrain; amateur roboticists; expanding subculture.

Exercise 4. Translate the following scientific and technical terms into English.

Удосконалення технології; виконувати команди; спеціальне обладнання; обробляти дані; проводити дослідження; виконувати математичні і логічні операції; зробити більш безпечним; частково визначати; передавати інформацію; координувати діяльність; виявлення помилок; набір команд; резервна копія; оптоволокно; штучний інтелект; віртуальна реальність; прикладна програма; перетворити аналогові сигнали у цифрові; можливі зловживання; достовірний; список змінних; режим особливого сприяння; анонсувати новий виріб; матеріал-замінник; застосовуючи новий метод; вирішувати питання; досягти успіхів; засіб виконання таких операцій; випливати з чогос (мати результатом); вимірювальні пристрої; питання, яке розглядається; подібні властивості; підкреслити значимість; засіб автоматизації і контролю.

Exercise 5. Translate the following passage from English into Ukrainian.

Neural network simulations appear to be a recent development. However, this field was established before the advent of computers, and has survived at least one major setback and several eras. Many important advances have been boosted by the use of inexpensive computer emulations. Following an initial period of enthusiasm, the field survived a period of frustration and disrepute. During this period when funding and professional support was minimal, important advances were made by relatively few researchers. These pioneers were able to develop convincing technology which surpassed the limitations identified by Minsky and Papert. Minsky and Papert, published a book (in 1969) in which they summed up a general feeling of frustration (against neural networks) among researchers, and was thus accepted by most without further analysis.

Exercise 6. Translate the following passage from Ukrainian into English.

Диференціація виробу може також бути результатом – в значній мірі – уявних відмінностей, створених шляхом реклами, пакування та використання торгових знаків і торгових марок. Коли та чи інша марка джинсів або парфумів пов’язується з ім’ям якої-небудь знаменитості, то це може вплинути на попит на ці вироби з боку покупців. Багато споживачів вважає, що зубна паста, упакована в аерозольний балончик, краща за таку саму пасту в звичайному тюбику. Хоча існує низка медикаментів, за властивостями подібних до аспірину, створення сприятливих умов для продажу та яскрава реклама можуть переконати багатьох споживачів, що аспірин фірми «Баєр» є кращим та заслуговує на більш високу ціну, ніж його менш відомий замінник.

Одним із важливих значень диференціації виробу є те, що, незважаючи на наявність великої кількості фірм, виробники, в умовах монополістичної конкуренції, мають обмежені можливості контролю над цінами на власну продукцію. Споживачі віддають перевагу виробам конкретних продавців і у певних межах сплачують більш високу ціну за цю продукцію, аби задовольнити власний смак. Продавці та покупці більше не пов’язані стихійно, як на ринку чистої конкуренції.