Глагол will в значении настоящего времени

В научно-технических текстах глагол will нередко имеет значение настоящего времени и используется для выражения: 1) возможности, способности, 2) неизбежности, 3) привычного состояния, часто повторяющегося действия. Сравните:

The water will boil in 10 minutes. Вода закипит через 2 минуты.

Water will boil at 100 ⁰C. Вода (обычно) закипает при 100 ⁰C.

Упражнение 9. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Oxygen will dissolve in water.

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2. Saliva will start the process of digestion.

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3. Without adequate supply of blood tissue will die.

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4. Some white blood cells will attack and kill germs.

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5. Each spinal nerve will form two main branches, a ventral and a dorsal.

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6. A healthy human being will lose some 2,4 litres of fluid a day in the form of sweat, urine, and water vapour.

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7. The optimum level of cholesterol will differ from person to person according to differences in, say, body-type, lifestyle and behavior.

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8. The number of leukocytes in the blood will rise or fall in response to certain abnormal conditions.

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9. The normal heart will undergo over 3 billion contractions during a normal lifetime.

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10. Through the processes of growth and development, the somatic cells will become the tissues, organs, and systems that compose the adult human body.

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11. There is no drug that will cure arthritis.

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12. During an average breath, an adult will exchange from 500 ml to 700 ml of air.

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Урок 2

Continuous

Сказуемое, имеющее форму продолженного времени, обозначает действие в развитии, процесс, происходящий в определенный момент времени в настоящем, прошедшем или будущем. Такое сказуемое состоит из двух частей, а именно - вспомогательного глагола to be (который согласуется в лице и числе с подлежащим и указывает на время осуществления действия) и причастия I или причастия настоящего времени. Формальным признаком этого причастия является окончание –ing (образуется одинаково для правильных и неправильных глаголов).

При переводе глагольных форм продолженного времени на русский язык грамматическое значение длительности, процессуальности действия нередко нуждается в лексическом «усилении»; для этого в русском переводе могут использоваться слова постоянно, непрерывно и др. Например:

The forests of the world are disappearing. Леса непрерывно исчезают с поверхности Земли.

Упражнение 1. Раскройте скобки, поставив глагол в форму Continuous настоящего времени. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. There is a clear connection between sleep and health, sleep deprivation and disease, and the evidence _________________ (get) stronger.

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2. Restrictions on this research _________________ (slow) the progress.

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3. Due to species extinction, the diversity of the forms of life that inhabit the planet _________________ (diminish).

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4. Some of these questions _______ now __________ (find) answers.

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5. Acupuncture ________________ (get) acceptance in Western medicine for treatment of some conditions.

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6. The research _______ now __________ (move) from lab to clinic.

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7. People _________________ (live) longer than ever before.

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8. Treatment for osteoarthritis _______ constantly ____________ (improve) due to new, highly effective anti-inflammatory drugs.

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9. Fortunately, some new treatments of this disorder ________________ (emerge).

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10. From birth to the age of 21, child's gastrointestinal, neurological and cardiovascular systems _______ constantly ____________ (change).

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11. Through the development of better surgical techniques, better radiation therapy, and the application of newer drugs, the control of brain tumors _________________ (improve) gradually.

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12. Inside any cell a multitude of chemical reactions _______________ (take) place.

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Упражнение 2. Переведите предложения на английский язык:

1. Все клетки, ткани, органы организма постоянно работают.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Число молодых и пожилых людей популяции значительно меняется.

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3. Операции по пересадке сердца становятся все более распространенными.

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4. Технология быстро развивается.

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5. Наш образ жизни постоянно меняется.

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6. Костный мозг производит эритроциты постоянно.

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7. Сигналы из разных частей тела поступают в мозг постоянно.

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8. Ученые со всего мира пытаются найти вакцину от рака.

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Упражнение 3. Соедините начало и конец предложений по смыслу, ответы запишите в таблицу. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The body is always …	a) moving.
2. Human activities are now …	b) using energy.
3. The contents of the chest and abdomen are constantly …	c) causing damage to the ozone layer.
4. The bones of a living person are constantly …	d) varying with the movement of ribs and the diaphragm.
5. Numerous nerves endings in the muscles, tendons, bones and joints are continuously …	e) moving in the atmosphere.
6. Water is continuously …	f) rebuilding itself.
7. Even during sleep muscles are constantly …	g) reshaping and rebuilding itself.
8. The size of the thoracic cavity is constantly …	h) sending impulses back to the central nervous system.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Modal Verbs (Active Voice)

Модальные глаголы - это особая группа глаголов: они не выражают действие, а обозначают возможность или необходимость его совершения. В эту группу, в частности, входят следующие глаголы: can, may, must, should.

Модальные глаголы имеют еще ряд особенностей:

• они не изменяются ни по лицам, ни по числам (не имеют окончания в 3-м лице единственного числа);

• некоторые из них (must, should) не имеют формы прошедшего времени;

• они не имеют форм будущего времени.

Так как сами модальные глаголы выражают не действие, а отношение к нему, за ними всегда следует смысловой глагол, выражающий действие, совершаемое подлежащим.

Упражнение 4. Подчеркните подходящий по смыслу модальный глагол. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Twenty amino acids are necessary for protein synthesis. The human body can/must synthesize only eleven of them.

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2. The body can/should not cope with an excess of blood sugar.

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3. Blood donors can/must meet certain requirements of age, health and weight.

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4. What characteristics may/must a good surgeon have? Surgeons need good eye-hand coordination, manual dexterity, and the physical stamina.

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5. A new medicine must/should undergo extensive testing in the laboratory.

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6. People with back trouble can/should not lift heavy weights.

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7. Blood disorders can/must vary greatly in their effects.

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8. You may/should not give aspirin to children who have viral infections.

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9. Many adults can/may not digest lactose because of a deficiency of the enzyme lactase.

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10. These reactions can/should affect almost any cell or tissue and cause a variety of disorders.

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11. Animals can/must not manufacture their own food but may/must take it in from the outside in some way.

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12. Surgeons can/should transplant such organ as the heart, as soon after death of donor as possible.

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Упражнение 5. Проанализируйте предложения и вставьте необходимый по смыслу модальный глагол (can, cannot, may, must, should).

1. Each side of the heart ___________ perform different work.

2. Like any other tissue in the body, the heart muscle ___________ receive oxygen-rich blood.

3. Many foods ___________ cause allergic reactions.

4. Heavy physical exertion ___________ increase the rate of blood flow to the muscles.

5. These drugs ___________ improve the course of the disease.

6. Life ___________ exist in the absence of water.

7. In an anemic person, the blood ___________ provide the tissues with enough oxygen.

8. Patients ___________ carefully follow their doctor's advice on health care and check-ups.

9. An abnormal heart valve ___________ cause malfunction.

10. A virus ___________ multiply hundreds of times.

Упражнение 6. Образуйте форму множественного числа от существительных. Переведите существительные на русский язык:

	Единственное число	Множественное число	Перевод
	Alveolus
	Glomerulus
	Bacterium
	Bacillus
	Сilia
	Nucleus
	Villus
	Criterion
	Fungus
	Pneumococcus
	Vertebra
	Embolus
	Staphylococcus
	Reticulum
	Paralysis
	Bursa

Урок 3

Perfect

Сказуемое в перфектной форме настоящего времени обозначает действие, завершенное к настоящему моменту (к моменту речи), который либо указан в предложении, либо подразумевается из контекста.

Такая глагольная форма состоит из двух элементов, а именно - вспомогательного глагола have (который согласуется в лице и числе с подлежащим) и смыслового глагола в 3-й форме (также называемой причастием прошедшего времени - Past Participle); 3-я форма правильных глаголов совпадает с формой прошедшего времени, т.е. имеет окончание -ed, и в словарях не приводится. Причастие прошедшего времени неправильных глаголов (3-я форма глагола) обязательно приводится в словарях и указывается, как и 2-я форма.

Present Perfect: have/has + v3

На русский язык глагол в перфектной форме настоящего времени переводится глаголами совершенного вида в прошедшем времени.

Если в предложении указывается период совершения действия, сказуемое в перфектной форме настоящего времени переводится на русский язык глаголом в настоящем времени. Например:

Animal have existed for 600 million years.

Животные существуют вот уже 600 миллионов лет.

Упражнение 1. Раскройте скобки и поставьте глагол в форму Present Perfect. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Since the turn of the century the average global surface temperature _________________ (rise) by just 0.5°C.

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2. The evolution of humans _________________ (take) many thousands of years.

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3. Vaccination _________________ (eradicate) smallpox as a natural hazard.

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4. . The hormones _________________ (become) agents of great importance in radio-therapeutic techniques.

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5. Modern medicine _________________ (make) enormous studies in recent years.

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6. Human activity _______ always __________ (have) an influence on nature.

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7. Development of techniques of cell, tissue and organ culture and electron microscopy _______ greatly ___________ (expand) the range of methods available for study of endocrine mechanisms and _________________ (add) much to knowledge of them.

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8. Since discovery of insulin in 1922 it _________________ (save) millions of lives.

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9. For decades, scientists _________________ (warn) about global warning's likely impact on the environment.

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10. Every living thing - a dolphin, an ant, a daisy, or a human body - ________________ (begin) life as a single cell with a few molecules of DNA.

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11. Genetics _______________ (discover) thousands of mutations responsible for diseases in humans.

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12. Over the past 60 years evidence _______ steadily ___________ (grow) of the dangers of high-fat diets.

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13. So far, scientists ________________ (not find) a gene for ageing.

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14. Anatomy _______________ (be) a subject of great interest since ancient times.

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15. Rapid industrialization and urbanization in Asia _________________ (cause) severe air pollution over many countries.

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Упражнение 2. Вставьте в пропуске глаголы по смыслу в форме Present Perfect. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

observe nourish improve pass identify improve mount extend pass lay witness

1. Over the past 30 years, scientists _________________ various proteins that activate or silence genes.

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2. Just 600 human generations ________________ since the end of the last Ice Age.

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3. Radical improvements in the care of people under general anesthesia _________________ the foundation for such procedures as organ transplantation and open-heart surgery.

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4. Drugs ________________ our lives and ________________ quality of life in countless ways.

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5. The last 60 years _________________ remarkable achievements in cardiovascular medicine and surgery.

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6. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ________________ considerably over the past century or so.

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7. Grains __________________ humans since early times.

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8. The blood that _________________ through the tissues flows along veins to the heart.

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9. The outlook for patients with hypertension ________________ markedly in recent years with the development of antihypertensive drugs.

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10. For over sixty years researchers _________________ an increase of association between sun exposure and cancer mortality.

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Упражнение 3. Переведите предложения на английский язык.

1. Современная наука на данный момент выявила практически все человеческие гены.

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2. Человечество потребляет овощи, фрукты, рыбу и мясо с Каменного века.

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3. Ученые обнаружили (определили) сотни видов раковых клеток.

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4. Солнечная энергия в её разнообразных формах сыграла значимую роль в прогрессе человечества.

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5. Каждое живое существо начало свою жизнь с единственной клетки.

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6. Климатические изменения представляют собой самую серьезную экологическую опасность, с которой мир когда-либо сталкивался.

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7. Концентрация углекислого газа в атмосфере возросла за последнее столетие.

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Degree of comparison

Упражнение 4. Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на составное именное сказуемое, выраженное глаголом-связкой to be и прилагательным в сравнительной степени (adj+er, more/less + adj) или в превосходной степени (adj+est, the most/least + adj). Определите степень сравнения прилагательного.

1. The male is generally more muscular than the female.

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2. The dermis is thicker than the epidermis.

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3. Aristotle (384-322 BC) was one of the best naturalists of all times.

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4. The right renal artery is longer and lower than the left.

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5. Ice is about one tenth less dense than water.

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6. Inspiration is slightly shorter than expiration.

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7. Some drugs are more dangerous than others.

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8. The stomach is the widest and most elastic part of the alimentary canal.

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9. Veins are more variable in location and distribution.

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10. The liver is the largest gland in the human body and one of the most complex of all human organs.

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11. Viruses are structurally simpler than bacteria.

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12. The skin is the largest organ of the body.

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13. The two ventricles are much more muscular than the left atrium and the right atrium.

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14. Malignant melanoma is the worst of the three types.

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15. Physicians in Ancient Egypt were undoubtedly the best doctors of the day.

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Упражнение 5. Переведите предложения на английский язык:

1. Эпидермис тоньше, чем дерма.

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2. Вены менее мускулистые, чем артерии.

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3. Желудочек более мускулистый, чем предсердие.

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4. У молодых людей метаболизм активнее, чем у взрослых.

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5. Правое легкое немного шире, короче и выше, чем левое.

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6. Лейкоциты, как правило, больше, чем эритроциты.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Лицевые кости меньше и более сложные, чем черепные кости.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Белки – самые важные строительные элементы в организме.

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9. Коленный сустав – самый сложный сустав.

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10. Природа боли – лучший помощник в постановке диагноза.

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Урок 4

Passive Voice

В английском языке, как и в русском, формы глагола в пассивном залоге используются для выражения действия, не совершаемого подлежащим, а направленного на него.

Глагол в пассивном залоге состоит из следующих элементов: вспомогательный глагол to be, который согласуется в лице и числе с подлежащим и изменяется по временам, и смысловой глагол в 3-й форме (т.е. причастие прошедшего времени - Past Participle):

На русский язык предложения со сказуемыми в пассивном залоге могут переводиться несколькими способами, и нередко русское предложение отличается от английского по структуре, в частности, дополнение английского предложения становится подлежащим в русском варианте. Иными словами, английскому предложению со сказуемым в пассивном залоге рекомендуется подбирать русский эквивалент со сказуемым в активном залоге.

Упражнение 1. Найдите сказуемое в каждом предложении, выделите и дайте его полную характеристику: лицо, число, время, группа. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The surgeon is assisted by a large staff.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. They have been warned of the possible complications.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The cells on the surface of the skin are constantly being replaced by new cells.

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4. A premature baby will often be placed in an incubator.

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5. Local inflammation is followed by various reactions in other parts of the body.

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6. In the future, many of today's hereditary diseases will be eradicated through genetic engineering.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. A date for the operation has been set.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Enzymes and their products were first obtained from bacteria, yeast, and molds.

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9. The results of the operation will not be known for some weeks.

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10. The drug is being monitored for possible side effects.

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11. Climate is changing. The implications of climate change are not yet being taken seriously enough.

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12. The first heart sound is followed after a short pause by the second.

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13. The cell's structures are housed in a gel-like substance, cytoplasm.

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14. Oxygen is taken from outside and exchanged with carbon dioxide in the lungs.

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15. For centuries, drugs have been made from animal and plant extracts.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

16. The epidermis is made up of cell layers that become flatter and tougher towards the surface.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

17. Doctors have been performing heart transplants since 1967; the first transplant was performed in South Africa in that year.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

18. Many stomach disorders result in or are accompanied by a loss of appetite.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

19. Evolution results in the formation of new organisms that are better adapted to the environment.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

20. Nasal bone makes up the bridge of the nose; the rest of the nose is made of cartilage.

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Упражнение 2. Установите соответствия как лексические, так и грамматические. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

The spinal column …	it depends upon a proper supply of calcium and phosphorus to the bone tissues.
Bone formation …	are arranged round the openings for eyes, nose and mouth.
The inner core of bones …	is made up of bony vertebrae.
The cranial bones of a newborn child …	are not completely joined.
The 206 bony elements …	are covered by a thin layer of cartilage.
The ends of long bones …	is composed of hematopoietic tissue.
The bones of the face …	are held in place by tough fibrous bands – ligaments.

1. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Упражнение 3. Прочтите предложения и определите, форму какого залога - активного или пассивного - должен иметь глагол-сказуемое. Образуйте от приведенной в скобках неопределенной формы глагола (инфинитива) сказуемое, соответствующее контексту. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The entire bony system (pierce) _______________________throughout by a rich network of vessels.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Pigment melanin (produce) _____________________________ by special cells in the epidermis.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. The body _____________________________ (require) only small amounts of vitamin D which_____________________ (provide) by a balanced diet and normal exposure to sunlight.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Cells (discover) _____________________________ in the middle of the seventeenth century.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. The smallest arteries (branch) ______________________________ into numerous tiny capillaries.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Nervous system (connect) _____________________the brain to the rest of the body through nerves.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. In vitamin A deficiency the epithelial tissues of many organs _____________________________ (affect)

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Vitamin В deficiency__________________ (accompany) by poor growth, dermatitis, anemia, kidney and adrenal lesions.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. In recent times, genetic engineering _____________________________ increasingly (use) in the field of biotechnology.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Most vitamins _____________________________ (require) only in extremely small amounts, and each vitamin _____________________________ (be) present in many different foods.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11. Intestinal bacteria___________________ (manufacture) vitamin К in the body, and so deficiencies of this vitamin rarely_______________ (result from) a poor diet.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Attributive Noun

В английском языке существительное, обычно выполняющее в предложении функцию подлежащего или дополнения, может также выступать в роли определения: в этом случае образуется так называемая цепочка существительных (последовательность из двух и более существительных), в которой последнее слово является определяемым, а стоящие впереди него - определениями.

Перевод такой «цепочки существительных» обычно начинают с определяемого слова (т.е. последнего слова в цепочке), а существительное, выполняющее функцию определения, соответствует в русском языке существительному в родительном падеже. В некоторых случаях может использоваться терминологический эквивалент.

Упражнение 4. Переведите словосочетания:

artery walls external ear canal ear infections heart attack symptoms skin cancer bone marrow transplant blood vessel blood cell blood vessel walls eye injury cancer treatment side effects fetal life blood vessel diseases defense mechanism blood cell production cancer detection methods brain cell transplant brain cell connections heart transplant operations protein synthesis calcium salt stem cell stem cell therapy mature red blood cells infection fighter cell metabolism surface membrane blood formation experiment phase

________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________

Упражнение 5. Из приведенного ниже списка существительных подберите соответствующее контексту определение и впишите его перед определяемым существительным. Переведите предложения.

animal, antigens, attacks, blood, body, cell, control, death, detection, ear, energy, growth, heart, nerve, nerve, pollution, rupture, sense, sugar, sweat, taste, vessel

1. The optic nerve carries _______________ signals to the brain.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Cells reproduce by _______________ division.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Chemical reactions involve _______________ changes.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Many _________________ cells contain 1,000 mitochondria.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Only mammals have _______________ glands.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Some papillae contain _______________ buds.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Inner _______________ abnormalities are rare, but generally serious.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. The sense of smell depends on the stimulation of _______________ organs in the nose by small particles in the air.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. Lymphatic capillaries are slightly larger in diameter than _______________ capillaries.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. Measurement of _______________ temperature provides a useful indication of the state of health.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11. A _______________ attack victim needs immediate medical care.

_____________________________________________________________________________

12. _______________ growth from infancy to maturity involves great changes in body size and appearance.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

13. Asthma _______________ are not all the same - some are worse than others.

_____________________________________________________________________________

14. _______________ cells are probably the largest cells. Some of them are more than three feet long.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

15. Fatty deposits, or plaques, thicken blood _______________ walls.

_____________________________________________________________________________

16. A bone marrow transplant between identical twins guarantees complete compatibility of leukocyte _______________ between donor and recipient.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

17. Blood _______________ levels rise sharply in the intestinal tract after absorption of carbohydrates.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

18. Cancer _______________ methods vary due to the location of the possible cancer.

_____________________________________________________________________________

19. Sometimes brain cell _______________ is inevitable.

_____________________________________________________________________________

20. Water _______________ _______________ policies vary around the world.

_____________________________________________________________________________

21. The flow of blood after the blood vessel _______________ damages brain cells.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Урок 5

Придаточные предложения

Сложноподчиненное предложение состоит из главного и одного или нескольких придаточных, присоединенных к главному предложению подчинительным союзом или союзным словом (because, that, who, when, where, what, why, и др.).

Наиболее употребительные виды придаточных предложений:

- Дополнительные (отвечают на вопрос ЧТО?):

I don’t know when he will come.

Я не знаю, когда он придет.

- Определительные (отвечают на вопрос КАКОЙ? КОТОРЫЙ?):

This is the book that I have been reading recently.

Вот книга, которую я читаю последнее время.

- Обстоятельственные (отвечают на вопрос К.ОГДА? ГДЕ? ПОЧЕМУ? С КАКОЙ ЦЕЛЬЮ? КАКИМ ОБРАЗОМ? ПРИ КАКОМ УСЛОВИИ?

You must know English as he knows it.

Вы должны знать английский язык так, как он его знает.

Упражнение 1. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. The cytoplasm is a clear gel-like substance that surrounds the nucleus.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. The trachea divides into right and left main bronchi which go to the lungs.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Salivary glands produce saliva, a liquid that protects the delicate membranes and mixes with food in the first step of digestion of food.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The inner ear contains the semicircular canals, which are essential to the sense of balance.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. The mucous component of saliva is a sticky substance that lubricates the food.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Most fungi produce spores that enhance their survival under conditions of low moisture, high temperature, or lack of nutrients.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. There are a number of uncommon conditions that result from defects in the immune system.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Enzymes are the biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions inside cells.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. The heart is primarily a pump that pushes the blood through the blood vessels.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. The digestive system develops embryologically as a straight tube that enlarges, twists, and contorts at various locations.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Упражнение 2. Поставьте глаголы, данные в скобках, в правильную форму; для этого определите, какое существительное заменяется союзом which / that: в зависимости от числа существительного, которое заменяется этим союзом, глагол-сказуемое в придаточном предложении будет иметь или не иметь окончание -s/-es. Переведите предложения.

1. The cranium forms the bony cage that (to enclose) _________________ the brain.

2. The human body consists of trillion of cells that (to vary) _________________ in size and shape.

3. Healthy joints contain a fluid which (to protect)______________ the bones within them.

4. There are eleven pairs of intercostal muscles that (to occupy) __________________ the spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs.

5. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes which (to complete) ______________ the breakdown of food.

6. A gene is a piece of DNA that (to encode) ___________ a molecule of protein.

7. The aorta branches into arteries that (to distribute) _ blood to all parts of the body.

8. The heart possesses a fibrous skeleton that (to surround) _____________and (to strengthen) ________________ many of its openings.

9. There are several types of leucocytes which (to carry out) ____________ their protective functions in different ways.

10. The nerves that (to innervate)____________________________the various muscles of the back arise from the segmental spinal nerves.

11. The bacteria that (to cause) __________________pneumonia most frequently enter the lungs with air.

Упражнение 3. Проанализируйте структуру сложноподчиненных предложений и найдите ядро в главном и придаточном предложениях, а также союз, с помощью которого придаточное дополнительное предложение присоединяется к главному. Переведите предложения.

1. Doctors know how much of a drug should be given and how long a patient should take a drug.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. The weight of a particular atom depends on how many protons and neutrons it has.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Democritus proposed that the universe contains only a vacuum and atoms and that these atoms are invisibly small and hard, eternal and are in ceaseless motion.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. The drug label tells how much of a drug to take and how often.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Only a physician can determine which drug will help you.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Knowing or being able to measure the effect produced by a drug does not indicate where the drug acts in the body or how it acts.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Many experts agree that sleeping pills do not help and many add dependence and addiction to the problems of insomnia.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. One drug may alter how the body absorbs, distributes, metabolizes or excretes another drug.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. Since the discovery of the structure of DNA (1953) work on nucleic acids has explained how genes determine all life processes by directing the synthesis of all cell proteins.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Molybdenum differs from the other micronutrients in soil in that it is less soluble in acid soils and more soluble in alkaline soils, the result being that its availability to plants is sensitive to pH and drainage conditions.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Упражнение 4. Проанализируйте структуру сложноподчиненных предложений с придаточными, найдите ядро в главном и придаточном предложениях, укажите союз которым придаточное предложение присоединяется к главному, а также переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. Cells must grow before they can divide.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Before a cell divides, it must replicate all its DNA.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Many drugs now available are still in the investigational stage and must be approved by a human experimentation committee before they can be used in hospital.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. As soon as the reaction starts, more and more molecules are activated by the energy liberated as a result of the reaction

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Because proteins are the major source of nitrogen in the body, they are constantly being broken down and reconstructed.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Mercury used in thermometers must be extra-pure since even microscopic impurities may substantially distort the readings.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Since an enzyme is not affected by a chemical reaction, it can be used over and over again to catalyze the same reaction.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Do not take this medicine mixed with chocolate syrup or ice cream since it may prevent the medicine working properly.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. Since fungus infections may be very slow to clear up, you may have to continue using this medicine everyday for several months or longer.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Функции и перевод местоимения it

Местоимение it может:

- иметь значение личного местоимения 3-го лица единственного числа (о предметах и животных_ и может иметь следующие эквиваленты в русском языке: «он», «она», «оно», и «его», «ему», «им», «ее», «ей», «ею»;

- иметь значение указательного местоимения, соответствующее русскому «это»;

- выполнять функцию формального подлежащего, например, в безличных оборотах и неопределенно-личных предложениях;

- употребляться в эмоционально-усилительной функции.

Упражнение 5. Переведите предложения на русский язык. Определите функцию местоимения it.

1. It has been estimated that the entire oxygen content of the atmosphere passes through the biosphere every 3.000 years.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. It is necessary to receive an influenza vaccine injection each year, since influenza infections are usually caused by viruses with different antigens each year and because the immunity gained by the vaccine lasts less than a year.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. It is believed that ascorbic acid requirements in stress are abnormally high.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. It is now recognized that practically every chemical reaction that occurs within the body requires its specific enzyme to catalyze it.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. It was only after the foundation of the great medieval universities in Europe that botanical gardens for educational purposes began to be established.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. It is necessary to have a healthy intake of calcium to maintain the body's calcium reserve; otherwise, the calcium levels in the body become dependent on the resorption of bone tissue.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. It is the 21% of oxygen which is most immediately essential for sustaining life and without which we cannot survive more than a few minutes.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. The name organic was given to most of the chemicals of living things when it was believed that only living organisms could produce molecules containing carbon.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. It is well established that using large doses of anabolic steroids over time can cause a variety of undesirable side effects.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. It is recommended that alcohol and acetone combination not be used on children up to 8 years of age.

_____________________________________________________________________________

11. While you are taking this medicine it is important that your doctor check your progress at regular visits.

_____________________________________________________________________________

12. The majority of reactions are exothermic and it was once believed that only exothermic reactions could take place.

_____________________________________________________________________________

13. It is possible to carry out reactions which change one element to another.

_____________________________________________________________________________

14. It is recommended that the drug be withdrawn if mild to moderate skin rashpersists for longer than 5 to 8 days.

_____________________________________________________________________________

15. Since smoking may increase some of the harmful effects of this medicine, it is best to avoid smoking while you are using it.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Урок 6

Функции служебного слова as

Служебное слово as может иметь значения разных частей речи:

- в значении предлога или наречия as переводится на русский язык «как», «в качестве»;

- выступая в роли союза, служебное слово as вводит придаточные предложения обстоятельства времени и причины. В зависимости от типа придаточного as может переводиться на русский язык:

А) в придаточных обстоятельства времени – «когда», «во время», «в процессе», «по мере того, как»;

Б) в придаточных обстоятельствах причины – «так как», «поскольку»;

- служебное слово as может входить в состав сложных союзов и предлогов (as long as, as soon as, as well as, as to, etc).

Упражнение 1. Проанализируйте предложения и определите, какую функцию выполняет служебное слово as. Переведите предложения.

1. Carbon dioxide is a constituent of medical gases as it promotes exhalation.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. As bacteria grow and reproduce, using the body's waste for food, they manufacture considerable amounts of vitamins.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Albumin serves also as a transport protein carrying large organic anions, such as fatty acids, many drugs and hormones.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. As research in antineoplastic therapy continues it is expected that newer, less hazardous and more precisely targeted chemical agents will be developed.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Enzymes are special proteins which act as biological catalysts in cells.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Calcium is essential for normal functioning of all body cells as it is mediator for many cell functions.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. As the filtered blood passes through the nephron glucose, amino acids, mineral salts and most of the water are reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. The cell is regarded as the smallest unit of living matter that can live independently and reproduce itself.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. Substances in the body are regarded as waste materials if they cannot be used by cells and if their accumulation will upset the fine balance which must be maintained between chemical substances in the internal environment.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. As vitamins are concerned with metabolism, it follows that absence or deficiency of certain vitamins can result in malnutrition and specific deficiency diseases.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Упражнение 2. Проанализируйте предложения и найдите сложный союз или предлог, в состав которого входит служебное слово as. Переведите предложения.

1. Drugs produce harmful as well as beneficial effects, and decisions about when and how to use them therapeutically always involve the balancing of benefits and risks.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. The adaptive mechanisms for maintaining normal volume and distribution of fluids inside and outside the cells function only as long as there is adequate and equal intake and output of water and electrolytes.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. As new viruses are produced, they are released from the cell to infect other cells. The new viruses become lifeless as soon as they are released.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. The body rids itself of mercury not only through urine and faeces, but also via the lungs and sweat, as well as locking some away in nails and hair.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. A number of studies have suggested that taking large amounts of vitamin — as soon as you get a cold may shorten the time you are sick by day or so.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Plasma transports nutrients, metabolic waste products and chemicals, as well as hormones and drugs.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Most salts and minerals, as well as water, are readily absorbed from all portions of the small intestine.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. There is no general agreement as to the normal and therapeutic daily requirements of vitamin C.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. At present two approaches of viral infections treatment are known: application of interferon and antiviral chemopreparations effective as to certain virus; serotherapy and seroprophylaxis that provide for use of specific human or immunized animals' immunoglobulins.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. Adverse reactions are generally dose-related and may result from excessive dosage, or rapid absorption from the injection site as well as reduced patient tolerance, or hypersensitivity.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Урок 7

Причастие 1 в функции определения

Упражнение 1. Проанализируйте предложения, найдите причастие 1 (причастный оборот) и существительное, которое им определяется. Переведите предложения.

1. More than 80% of all plants living today are flowering plants.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Fast moving water has kinetic energy.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Zinc containing enzymes regulates growth, development longevity and fertility.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. The number of electrons revolting around the nucleus of an atom is equal to its atomic number.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. An isotope of a chemical element consists of atoms having the same number of neutrons.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Solutions of acids have a sour taste and produce a burning feeling when they touch skin.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Oxygen is a highly reactive substance, readily combining with many other elements in the process of oxidation.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. In naturally occurring compounds, boron exists as a mixture of two stable isotopes with atomic weights of 10 and 11.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. Salts resulting from the combination of strong acids and weak bases will give acidic water solutions.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. Carbon dioxide is the focus of public concern in recent years due to the increasing concentrations of this gas in the atmosphere as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Упражнение 2. Проанализируйте предложения, найдите причастие 1 (причастный оборот) в пассивном залоге и существительное, которое им определяется. Переведите предложения.

1. The respiratory ratio of a plant tissue depends upon the type of substrate being oxidized.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Many of the drugs being developed today are the product of years of intensive research.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Life extension experiments being performed on animals have shown promising results.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Many people being treated for HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection undergo a redistribution of body fat which can cause abnormal levels of fat in the blood.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. The main vaccine being used to eradicate polio consists of a live, weak form of the virus.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. The amount of carbon dioxide constantly being taken from the atmosphere during daylight hours by all green plants is enormous.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Ointments are applied directly to the area being treated.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. The damage being done to the ozone layer is very serious.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Причастие 2 в функции определения

Упражнение 3. Проанализируйте предложения, найдите причастие 2 (причастный оборот) и существительное, которое им определяется. Переведите предложения.

1. Silver dissolved in water kills many harmful bacteria.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. An element is a substance made up of only one type of atom.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Nitrogen gas carried in the atmosphere eventually falls as dissolved inorganic and organic nitrogen.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Despite the health risks associated with lead, it was used by doctors for around 2000 years.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Metallic mercury dispersed in fat was used as an ointment for skin complaints.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Neutron is a non-charged nuclear particle with the same mass as the proton.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Polluted air and pure air differ in composition.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Much of the organic matter produced through photosynthesis is eventually used in the building of protoplasm and cell walls.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements in a fixed, characteristic chemical combination and composition.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. A molecule is a combination of a fixed number of atoms, held together by chemical bonds in certain geometric arrangement.

_____________________________________________________________________________

11. There is enormous amount of information stored in the DNA of a cell.

_____________________________________________________________________________

12. The degree of relaxation produced by sedatives varies with the kind of the drug, the dose, the means of administration, and the mental state of the patient.

_____________________________________________________________________________

13. Cellulose is the most abundant substance found in the plant kingdom.

_____________________________________________________________________________

14. The atomic spectra of an element are lines which are present at characteristic wavelengths in the light emitted from an electric arc between electrodes of that element.

_____________________________________________________________________________

15. Accumulated evidence acquired through repeated experimentation makes possible the formulation of a theory.

_____________________________________________________________________________

16. Bacterial decomposition of the organic matter formed in photosynthesis results in the release of dissolved ammonium, some of which is used directly in photosynthesis.

_____________________________________________________________________________

17. All the life on earth ó human beings, animals and plants ó depend on the heat, light and other kinds of energy given off by the sun.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Урок 8

Причастие 1 в функции обстоятельства

Упражнение 1. Проанализируйте предложения, найдите ядро и обстоятельство, выраженное причастием 1 (причастным оборотом). Переведите предложения.

1. When an atomic nucleus is unstable it decomposes spontaneously, emitting high-energy particles.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. After cell division, plant cells rearrange or restructure their cell walls, removing cellulose in some places and building it up in others.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Being one of the lightest metals, beryllium at the same time is remarkably strong, stronger than steel.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Algae being simple plants do not develop flowers; they do not have true roots, stems, or leaves.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. X-rays are harmful to living things so care must be taken when working with them.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. When growing on a bare surface such as rock, mosses slowly build up a thin layer of soil on the rock.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. While burning, magnesium emits large quantities of ultraviolet rays and heat.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. An atom is a basic structural unit of matter, being the smallest particle of an element that can enter into chemical combination.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. Neptunium occurs naturally on Earth, being present in minute quantities in uranium ores.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. Some tantalum compounds are used in diagnostic medicine because they are more visible on X-rays than other agents, especially when examining the lungs.

_____________________________________________________________________________

11. Thorium is surprisingly abundant in the Earth's crust, being almost as abundant as lead.

_____________________________________________________________________________

12. Combining theory with practical activity D.I. Mendeleyev carried out enormous research in coal, petroleum, iron, and steel industries in Russia.

_____________________________________________________________________________

13. An unstable atomic nucleus decomposes, emitting high-energy particles.

_____________________________________________________________________________

14. The discovery of the cell brought about a revolution in biology, opening up a new field of inquiry into the structure and function of living systems.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Упражнение 2. Проанализируйте предложения, найдите ядро и обстоятельство, выраженное перфектной формой причастия 1 (причастным оборотом). Переведите предложения.

1. Having invaded living cells viruses grow and multiply.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. In the infant at birth the entire gastro-intestinal canal is sterile, but remains so for only a few hours, when a number of bacteria appear in faeces, probably having gained access to the intestines by way of the mouth.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Having benefited from the medical and nutritional advances of the past ninety years, people are on the average living much longer than their ancestors.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Having been formed, the bones continue to grow until the body has acquired its full structure.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. A hormone is a chemical messenger which, having been formed in one organ or gland, is carried in the blood to another organ or tissue, where it influences activity, growth and nutrition.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Having determined the proper blood groups, the blood of the donor and the recipient are directly cross-matched, that is, the red cells of the donor are placed in contact with the serum of the recipient, and vice versa.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

Причастие 2 в функции обстоятельства

Упражнение 3. Проанализируйте предложения, найдите ядро и обстоятельство, выраженное причастием 2 (причастным оборотом). Переведите предложения.

1. Titanium becomes brittle when exposed to hydrogen gas.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Gallium will melt when held in hand.

____________________________________________________________________________

3. Hydrogen explodes easily when mixed with air or oxygen.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. When heated, dry ice (solid CO2) becomes a gas.

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. When taken through the mouth, beryllium compounds may be less toxic.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Potassium is silvery when first cut but it oxidizes rapidly in air and tarnishes within minutes.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Nitroglycerin is not effective when swallowed.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Most poisonous plants are poisonous only when eaten.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. Zinc is lost from the body at about 1% of the total per day, excreted via the intestines, urine and sweat.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. Too much fluoride, whether taken in from the soil by roots, or absorbed from the atmosphere by the leaves, retards the growth of plants and reduces crop yields.

__________________________________________________________________

Независимый причастный оборот

Упражнение 4. Переведите предложения.

1. Botany is one of the two major divisions of biology, the science of life, the other division being zoology, which deals with animals.

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. The Earth coat is the atmosphere which surrounds our planet, the water vapour acting like a layer of cotton wool.

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. With any substance, there are limits to solubility, which may vary with temperature ó hot solvents dissolving more solute than a cold solvent.

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. Phosphates are widely distributed in the body, the largest amounts being in the bones and teeth. _____________________________________________________________________________

5. All fats are esters of fatty acids and glycerol, the fatty acids accounting for 90 per cent of the molecule of most natural fats.

_____________________________________________________________________________

6. Calcium is the most abundant metal in the human body, the reason being that bone contains a great deal.

_____________________________________________________________________________

7. Magnesium disperses throughout the body, with the most (60%) going into the skeleton where it helps maintain bone structure.

_____________________________________________________________________________

8. Enzymes are large, complex proteins and are highly specific, each chemical reaction requiring its own particular enzyme.

_____________________________________________________________________________

9. Beta-particles are the result of the disintegration of neutrons, their source being the unstable atom of radioactive metals.

_____________________________________________________________________________

10. Belladonna contains several important medicinal alkaloids, the chief one being atropine.

_____________________________________________________________________________

Урок 9