- •Translation
- •1. The translation of proper names
- •1.1. People’s names
- •1.2. Geographical names
- •1.3. The names of companies, newspapers, educational institutions, and public bodies
- •2. The translation of internationalisms and culturally-biased lexis
- •2.1. Internationalisms and their types
- •2.2. The translation of international words
- •2.3. Pseudo-internationalisms and their translation.
- •2.4. Culturally biased lexis and ways of its translation
- •3. The translation of idioms, proverbs, and sayings
- •3.1. Phraseological units and their semantic classification
- •3.2. Rules of translating idioms, proverbs, and sayings
- •2. Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents
- •3. Translation by choosing genuine idiomatic analogies
- •4. Translating idioms by choosing approximate analogies
- •5. Descriptive translating of idiomatic and set expressions
- •4. The rendering of contextual meanings of the indefinite and definite articles
- •4.1. The translation of the indefinite article
- •4.2. The translation of the definite article
- •5. The translation of nominal phrases
- •6. The translation of verbals and verbal complexes
- •7. Translation transformations
- •7.1. Ways of translating non-equivalent words
- •7.2. Lexical transformations
- •7.3. Grammatical transformations
- •7.4. Stylistic transformations
1.2. Geographical names
There is a general tendency to transcribe or transliterate foreign geographical names (Salt Lake City – місто Солт Лейк-Сіті, Dublin – Дублін, San-Francisco – Сан-Франциско, Бровари – Brovary, Горлівка – Horlivka, Ізмаїл – Ismail, etc.).
Ukrainian geographical names should be translated into English as close to their source language form as possible unless other forms are historically or traditionally established: Богуслав – Bohuslav; Моринці – Moryntsi; Жуляни – Zhuliany; Чернігів – Chernihiv; Хутір Михайлівський – Khutir Mykhailivskyi.
A considerable number of English geographical names are exclusively rendered into Ukrainian by transcription: Buckinghamshire – Бакінгемшир, Capetown – Кейптаун, Newfoundland – Ньюфаундленд. Many English place names are conveyed into Ukrainian with the help of both transcription and transliteration: Birmingham – Бірмінгем, Kingstown – Кінгстаун, Greensboro – Ґрінзборо, Houston – Г'юстон.
The geographical names formed on the basis of common nouns which acquired the status of proper names are generally translated from English into Ukrainian and vice versa: Cape of Good Hope – мис Доброї Надії; Саре Verde Islands – O-ви Зеленого Мису; Golden Gate – Золоті Ворота. Names of seas, oceans, bays, archipelagos, straits, channels, administrative territories and compound names of countries having the structure of word-combinations are always translated: the Atlantic Ocean – Атлантичний океан; the Gulf of Mexico – Мексиканська затока; Stratford-on-Avon – Стратфорд-на-Ейвоні.
A few geographical names have a traditionally established orthographical form which does not reflect in any way their pronunciation or their real orthographic form in the English language: the Arctic Ocean – Північний Льодовитий океан; Lake Superior – Озеро Верхнє.
A lot of geographical names, represented by a single word or a word-combination, require some identifying element in the target language (an appositional noun, an adjective, etc.). These elements explain the nature and the real meaning of the geographical name in the target language: the Seychelles – Сейшельські о-ви; Idaho Falls – місто Айдаго-Фолз; Донбас – Donets Basin.
1.3. The names of companies, newspapers, educational institutions, and public bodies
Traditionally, most names of companies are transcribed or transliterated and shortly explicated/explained. This method is also employed when rendering the names of publishing houses, most newspapers/magazines/journals, and public bodies. Shorter phrases are practised when the name of the company is well-known, whereas longer phrases are used when translating the names of minor companies: Standard Oil – Корпорація «Стандард Ойл», but Associated Biscuit Manufacturers – Англійська компанія з випуску хрустких коржиків «Ессошіейтед біскіт менюфекчерерз». Ukrainian companies, enterprises, and other state and private bodies are translated according to the same rule: Виробниче об'єднання «Краснодонвугілля» – Krasnodonvuhillya Coal Production Amalgamation.
Abbreviations in the names of companies are transcribed, as a rule, and not transliterated: CHC Ltd. – компанія «Сі-Ейч-Сі Лімітед»; IK Marketing –компанія «Ай-Кей Маркетинг».
Transcoding is the main way of translating the names of newspapers and magazines/journals (Language – журнал “Ленгвідж”). However, some more extended explication may be needed for a particular newspaper (magazine/journal): газета «Голос України» - the Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada Holos Ukrainy newspaper. The names of English newspapers, journals and magazines are traditionally less explicated in Ukrainian translation: the New York Times - газета «Нью-Йорк таймз»; Observer - англійський соціально-політичний тижневик «Обсервер»; Washington Post - газета «Вашингтон пост».
Translation of the names of British/American publishing houses is performed according to the same rules: Penguin Books - лондонське видавництво «Пенґвін букс»; Beacon Press (USA) - американське видавництво підручників «Бікон Прес». The names of Ukrainian publishing houses are rendered into English similarly: with the corresponding identifying noun publishers or publishing house added to it: видавництво «Музична Україна» - Muzychna Ukraina Publishers; видавництво «Школа» - Shkola/Skola Publishing House.
While translating the names of universities and colleges, it is necessary to identify the background of this proper name (a city, a state/province, a person, etc.) and use the corresponding word in Ukrainian to explicate additional meaning: University of Toledo – Університет міста Толедо; University of Texas – Університет штату Техас; University of California – Каліфорнійський університет; University of Sydney – Сіднейський університет.
Special attention should be paid to the names of institutions with honorary names. In English, the honorary name precedes the name of the institution which bears it, whereas in Ukrainian/Russian it always follows the name of the institution and is introduced by «імені»: Humboldt State College – Державний коледж ім. Гумбольдта; George Washington Library – Бібліотека ім. Джорджа Вашинґтона; Національна бібліотека України ім. академіка Вернадського – Ukrainian Academician Vernadskyi National Library; John Brown University – Університет ім. Джона Брауна. Care should be taken to avoid the stylistically unjustified expression named after.
The names of public bodies include political parties, trade unions, national and international bodies of different rank and functions. They are translated using a number of techniques, ranging from loan translation (International Monetary Fund - Міжнародний Валютний Фонд; European Economic Council - Економічна Рада Європи) to transcoding of the proper element (спортивне товариство «Динамо» - Dynamo sports society) and employing an explanatory phrase (United Miners – об'єднана профспілка шахтарів США).