Perception, Information Processing, and Listening
I. Perception is the process whereby individuals assign meaning to sense data. To understand communication we must understand how perception works.
A. Perception is both a social process (because it draws on social knowledge) and a cognitive process (because it involves mental processing.)
B. As we perceive sense data, we impose order and meaning.
We structure data into images and words.
We impose stability on changing stimuli.
We give data meaning by relating it to what we know.
C. We rely on three kinds of cognitive schemata to interpret sense data.
Person prototypes are idealized mental representations of kinds of people.
Personal constructs are the characteristics we notice on a daily basis about other people. a. Different people use different personal constructs to judge others. b. Chronically accessible constructs are constructs we use repeatedly; they often affect how we relate to others. c. Cognitively complex people have a large, rich, and varied set of personal constructs and are therefore sensitive communicators.
Scripts describe typical action sequences; they allow us to act mindlessly.
D. Perception is often automatic and bypasses conscious thought. This is called mindless processing.
Mindless processing can save us time and energy by allowing rapid judgments.
It can also result in stereotypical thinking and uncritical behavior.
We are better communicators if we can process information mindfully.
II. Senders who understand information processing can create effective messages.
A. Information processing is an active process of creating and storing information that involves attention, interpretation, and retention.
B. Senders must be able to capture attention.
When we decide to pay attention we use voluntary attention; when we simply react to a stimulus, we are using involuntary attention.
To increase involuntary attention, senders create vivid and compelling messages that include intense, novel, complex or surprising stimuli.
To increase voluntary attention, senders relate message elements to receivers' goals, needs, or plans.
C. Senders who control receivers' interpretations are likely to be effective.
One way to control interpretations is to make messages easy to understand. a. Message comprehension increases when new information relates to old. b. Familiar, concrete, and clear language makes messages easy to understand. c. Clear-cut organization guides readers through a message. d. It is a good idea to get feedback from receivers.
Messages must be acceptable to receivers. a. Relating ideas to receivers' values and beliefs makes messages more acceptable. b. Offering incentives is another way to gain acceptance. c. Favorable cognitive responses should be encouraged.
D. Effective messages must be memorable.
Encouraging active rehearsal and repetition increases the likelihood that a message will be retained.
Information related to the self is easier to store than irrelevant information.
Senders can tie messages to triggers in order to increase recall.
Finally, to increase retention and retrieval, messages should be summarized in simple but vivid style.
III. Receivers can improve their ability to decode messages accurately to become better listeners.
A. Listening is an important communication skill.
Listening is a process whereby orally communicated messages are processed and stored. It goes beyond hearing.
We listen for a variety of reasons. a. When our goal is to comprehend and remember message details, we listen for understanding. b. Sometimes our goal is to judge messages critically. This is evaluative listening. c. Appreciative listening is listening for aesthetic enjoyment. d. In empathic listening, our goal is to make contact, understand another's experiences, and offer help.
B. There are ways to improve listening.
Attention can be improved in several ways. a. Good listeners make an effort to stay focused. b. They have a clear purpose for listening. c. They use the time gap between speaking and listening to think about content rather than daydreaming. d. They never dismiss a message out of hand.
Accurate interpretation can be enhanced in several ways. a. Good listeners control emotions. b. They are aware of biases. c. They are not distracted by peripheral elements. d. They separate inference based on faulty schemata from objective observation.
Retention and retrieval skills can be improved. a. Good listeners store only important details. b. Thy rehearse and review ideas that need to be stored. c. Mnemonic devises can aid memory. d. Storing messages in one's own words can make messages more memorable.
C. Listening is not a passive process. Listeners have an obligation to let speakers know they are involved.
Active listening lets senders know you care and tells them that you understand their messages.
Active listening is especially important when you want to help others.
Paraphrasing is a important active listening technique.