Unit VI. Conjunction

Key words: category, formal markers, pattern, however, consequence, additive, adversative, causal,temporal, adversative, expectation, result, reason, purpose, successive.

The main cohesive category ‘conjunction’ involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other. Conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to be said to what has been said before.

Conjunction acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful pattern between them. Conjunction shows meaningful relationships between clauses. It shows how what follows is connected to what has gone before.

The whole Cabinet agreed that there should be a cut in the amount that the unemployed were receiving; where they disagreed was in whether this should include a cut in the standard rate of benefit. The opposition parties,however, were unwilling to accept any programme of economies which did not involve a cut in the standard rate of benefit.

The word “however” shows that this statement is opposite to the ideas that have come before. Other words used are “for example”, “as a consequence of this”, “firstly”, “furthermore”, “in spite of this”, etc.

Conjunction acts as a semantic cohesive tie within text in four categories: additive, adversative, causal and temporal. Additive conjunctions are: and, also, too, furthermore, additional, similarly, likewise, and in the same way. Additive conjunctions act to structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and are signaled through “and, also, too, furthermore, additionally”, etc. Additive negative conjunctions are nor, and...not, either, neither, etc.

Adversative conjunctions are yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather, etc. The basic meaning of the adversative relation is ‘contrary to expectation’. The source of expectation is either the content of what is being said, or the communication process, the speaker-hearer situation. If it is the former, the cohesion is on the external plane; and if it is on the latter, the cohesion is on the internal plane.

An external adversative relation is expressed in its simple form by the word ‘yet’. In English, the conjunctions ‘but’, ‘however’, and ‘though’ are very similar to ‘yet’. ‘But’ differs from ‘yet’, in that ‘but’ contains the element ‘and’ as one of its components, whereas ‘yet’ does not. For this reason it is not unusual to find sentences beginning ‘and yet’, but never ‘and but’.

Causal conjunctions express result, reason and purpose. They are: so, then, for, because, for this reason, as a result, in this respect, etc. The simple form of causal relation is expressed by the words ‘so’, ‘thus’, ‘hence’, ‘therefore’, ‘consequently’, and a number of expressions like ‘as a result (of that)’, ‘because of that’, ‘in consequence (of that)’. All these words and expressions regularly combine with initial ‘and’.

The last conjunctive category is temporal and links by signaling sequence or time. Some sample temporal conjunctions are: then, next, after that, next day, until then, at the same time, at this point, etc. The relation between the theses of two successive sentences may be simply one of sequence in time: the one is subsequent to the other. This temporal relation is expressed by words such as ‘then’, ‘and then’, ‘next’, ‘afterwards’, ‘after that’, ‘sequentially’ and a number of other expressions.

The temporal relation may be made more specific by the presence of an additional component in the meaning, as well as that of succession in time.

So, for example, we may have ‘then + immediately’ (at once, thereupon, on which); ‘then +after an interval’ (soon, presently, later, after a time); ‘then + repetition’ (next time, on other occasion); ‘then + a specific time interval’ (next day, five minutes later) and so on.

PRACTICE

Exercise 1.Think over the following statements and say whether they are right or wrong:

The main cohesive category ‘conjunction’ involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses and paragraphs to each other.

• Conjunction signals the grammar way of connecting sentences.

• Conjunction acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text.

• Conjunction shows meaningful relationships between clauses and paragraphs.

• The word “however” shows that this statement is not opposite to the ideas that have come before.

• There are twenty categories of conjunctions in the text.

• In English, the conjunctions ‘but’, ‘however’, and ‘though’ are very similar to ‘because’.

• Temporal conjunctions signal sequence or time.

Exercise 2.Notice how the following conjunctions are used in the texts:

In addition tends to be more often used when describing a situation. For example, use in addition to add another action, fact, or the feature to a list that characteristises an object or concept. Unlike moreover and furthermore, in addition is not commonly used for arguing or supporting a viewpoint.

According to the Act on Children’s Day Care, each local authority must provide day care in Finnish and Swedish, which are the national languages of Finland. In addition, the Sámi language is used in the Sámi domicile area in Lapland. Day care should also support development of the language and culture of Romany speakers and the children of various immigrant groups.

Note how after “Finnish” and “Swedish” have been mentioned in the first sentence, the writer uses in addition to add information about the minority language “Samí” and “Romany”. In addition often introduces statements that are only loosely connected to the topic, and allows the writer to make the logical connection where little would otherwise exists, or where the connection would even be surprising and unexpected.

Moreover is usually used to introduce the second of two points that argue for a certain viewpoint. The second item supports and reinforces the claim introduced by the first item. Although the connectors moreover, in addition and furthermore seem to be interchangeable in many cases, moreover differs from the other two in that it tends to follow and support a previous negative evaluation .

Note how the writer uses moreover to add a second point that adds extra support to the writer’s unstated argument that hydrogen is unsuitable as a fuel source for transportation.

All prototypes of hydrogen-powered cars have depended upon compressed hydrogen. However, because of its low density, compressed hydrogen will not give a car as useful a range as gasoline. Moreover, a compressed hydrogen fuel tank would be at risk of developing pressure leaks either through accidents or through normal wear, and such leaks could result in explosions.

When not supporting a "negative" claim, moreover can act like furthermore to add a second point to an argument. However, furthermore indicates the expansion of an already existing idea without introducing a new concept, while moreover would tend to introduce a new topic linked to and supporting the old one. Note in the following example how this text could have been expressed using enumerators.

The worldwide problem of contamination around mining sites is significant. Acid mine drainage, for example, is a threat to ground- and surface water near mines. It occurs when metal-sulfide ores are exposed to air and water and the sulfide is transformed to sulfuric acid. Moreover, metals such as zinc are toxic and can leach into groundwater and contaminate wells and other drinking water supplies.

Like furthermore, moreover can also be used to expand on an already existing idea without introducing a new topic. Note in the following example how both moreover and furthermore could have been used.

New materials developed through nanotechnology will meet the strength, weight, and thermal stability requirements of space planes, rockets, space stations, and high-speed aircraft. Moreover, / Furthermore,nanotechnology will permit the ultra-miniaturization of space systems and equipment, including the development of smart, compact sensors; miniscule probes; and microspacecraft.

You can use furthermore when you want to add another point to a list of two or more items in support of an argument. Contrast this with moreover, which typically introduces the second in a list of only two points. Furthermore also differs from moreover in that furthermore indicates the expansion of an existing idea without introducing new concepts, while moreover tends to introduce a new topic in support of the old one.

The benefits of hydrogen fuel cells are just reaching the mindset of the mainstream political and energy world. Because Hydrogen releases no air pollution or greenhouse gases, it offers the greatest potential for a clean energy not-so-distant future. Hydrogen fuel can be generated from renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power which have little or no greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore,changing over to hydrogen fuel would help bolster the job market, and help jumpstart an economy based on sustainability, rather than destruction and depletion of resources and national lands. On average, renewable energy creates 4.5 times as many short term construction jobs and 8 times as many long term operations and maintenance jobs than natural gas based electricity production.

Exercise 3.Note how ideas are connected in the following texts:

• contrast

Large-scale information technology projects are notoriously difficult to control. However, in the case of the massive euro conversion in 1999, everything went according to plan.

When a personal computer for home use is marketed strongly on the back of powerful visual images, the project of playing computer games becomes an important factor for many potential buyers. Nevertheless,it is difficult for manufactures to establish just how far hardware sales are driven by game-players.

Germany has been under pressure, especially from the United States, to plug legal loopholes which allow German businessmen to write off bribes abroad against tax. Yet both Britain and even the United States, which have strict legal barriers against international bribery, are behind the Germans.

Whereas the traditional home PC used to be a stand-alone device, today’s high-powered machines are designed to be multifunctional entertainment and communication devices equally capable of running the 3D adventure game, surfing the worldwide web for homework information or sending Granny an e-mail.

The results, although modest, were better than expected.

Although the currency crisis has hit local demand, the lower value of the baht has increased the competitiveness of exports.

Despite/in spite of advances in automated call technology, most people want to talk to real person, not just a disembodied voice.

Despite being so popular, the present administration has successfully carried out a number of reforms.

• result

If PC sales – and ,therefore, sales of the Intel microprocessors which power most of them – are to continue to grow, the PC will need to “win the battle for the consumer’s eyeballs”.

There have been rumors of a take-over bid. As a result,the share prices has soared.

The baggage-handling equipment often doesn’t work properly. Consequently, baggage gets stuck on the conveyor system and the system breaks down

• extra information

It’s fast, comfortable and safe. It’s very economical too. Our firm has been investing heavily in getting more customers online. We’ve consulted clients widely on the design of our web pages and they have been improved over the past years. In addition, we have been running seminars to show our customers our services and how to make the most of them.

Advances in IT and in the globalization of business have fostered the growth of knowledge-based companies and global brands. Furthermore, in many mega-mergers now, the main assets involved are often intangibles together with the resultant goodwill which often has a value of many billions of pounds.

• sequencing in time

1. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Rhodesia.

2.I’m really glad Barbara has found a job at last. She’s been out of work for ages.

3.The plane eventually landed at 16.40,over four hours late.

4. The plane will be ready for take- off shortly. Meanwhile please wait in the departure lounge.

5. Many scientific theories were subsequently disproved by experimental evidence.

Exercise 4. Identify examples of conjunctions in the following texts:

Text A

These two forms of dissent coalesced in the demand for a stronger approach to the Tory nostrum of tariff reform. In addition, trouble threatened from the mercurial figure of Winston Churchill, who had resigned from the Shadow Cabinet in January 1931 in protest at Baldwin's acceptance of eventual self-government for India.

Text B

These two sets of rules, though distinct, must not be looked upon as two co-ordinate and independent systems. On the contrary, the rules of Equity are only a sort of supplement or appendix to the Common Law; they assume its existence but they add something further.

Exercise 5.Choose the correct conjunction:

now that, although, because, while, nor, otherwise, thus, nonetheless,because of, therefore, unlike, since, both, as

1. Stephen Crane's schooling was not continuous; … he read all of the 19th-century English writers and the Greek and Latin classics.

2. Medical scientists have not yet discovered what causes muscular dystrophy, an inherited disorder that strikes nerve tissue and cripples its victim. … do they know what causes sudden death syndrome.

3. … more and more is learned about the biochemical changes that go on in the body … it grows older, scientists may someday be able to modify those changes to ensure better health for the aged.

4. … the emphasis on the technical study of language and literature, Roman education was remote from the real world and the interests of the schoolboys.

5. … the Greeks, who considered physical health a part of education, the church considered the human body something to be ignored.

6. Abundance of prey can vary locally within a region. … whales must be prepared to move constantly in search of the highest food densities.

7. … some teachers guide the natural development of the child's innate powers, others build knowledge into the child's mind through a systematic method of instruction.

8. A greenhouse is used … for displaying plants and, where winters are cold, for growing plants that would not … survive the seasonal change.

9. … its creation in 1903, the High Court of Australia has been responsible for interpreting the constitution.

10. … T.S. Eliot published few poems, they have had a tremendous influence on modern poetic technique.

Exercise 6.Underline the conjunctions in each of these paragraphs.

1. Whereas/Although/Despite having to wait four to five years before it is delivered to you, demand for a Stirling car is strong.

2. Although/Despite/Nevertheless American software firms are still well ahead of their European and Asian counterparts, the latter are catching up fast.

3. Demand and price go up and down, interest rates fluctuate, rival firms disrupt even the most carefully-laid plans, and employees make mistakes. The list of potential disasters is long, that of opportunities much shorter. In spite of/Yet/Despite for most businesses the rules of games and the types of disasters or opportunities stay much the same for years, or even decades, at a time.

4. However/Although/Nevertheless the types of jobs for which intercultural training is considered essential –namely expatriate positions – are on the decline, the globalization of firms has increased the need for cultural sensitivity training.

5. Many women feel that full quality in the workplace has not been achieved. Nevertheless/Although/Whereas most will admit that there has been progress over the last 30 years.

6. Whereas/Nevertheless/Despite American companies are allowed to own 49% of a European airline, European groups are limited to 25% of US carriers.

Exercise 6.Connect the following sentences with the appropriate conjunctions

1. ............. the issues were important, not many people bothered to vote.

2. There is no doubt that lowering interest rates early prevents recession. ......., lowering them to cure a recession that already exists doesn’t work.

3. ......... making a record profit last year, the firm has decided to lay off 500 employees.

4. Some cultures prefer meetings to start on time....... others are not bothered about punctuality.