Roman Britain

. Britain was the Roman province Britannia, ad 43–410 The first official Roman presence in Britain was that of Julius Caesar in 55–54 bc. In ad 43 Emperor Claudius invaded Britain on the pretext of dealing with troublesome tribal princes and druids. The island was subsequently occupied by the Romans who took advantage of Britain's mineral and agricultural wealth. The process of the incorporation of the province into the social and economic systems of the Roman empire is known as ‘romanization’, Within a generation the British landscape had changed considerably. The Roman army built legionary fortresses, forts, camps, and roads, and assisted with the construction of buildings in towns. A number of important military installations, notably the legionary fortresses, as well as stone public buildings such as Roman temples and administrative headquarters, houses and shops were built. Roman towns were grid-planned and their character created by a combination of official Roman involvement and acts of public munificence by wealthy locals desirous of increasing their chances of attaining public office. Towns usually contained temples, public baths, aqueducts, and an amphitheatre, most acquiring such a range of facilities by the mid-2nd cent. The Romans experienced a number of tribal revolts in the 1st cent. Rome created three client kingdoms: the Iceni, the Brigantes, and the Atrebates. In ad 60 the Iceni rose up under the leadership of Boudicca, destroying the Roman towns of Colchester, London, and St Albans.

Boudicca was queen of the Iceni people of Eastern England and led a major uprising against occupying Roman forces.

Boudicca was married to Prasutagus, ruler of the Iceni people of East Anglia. When the Romans conquered southern England in AD 43, they allowed Prasutagus to continue to rule. However, when Prasutagus died the Romans decided to rule the Iceni directly and confiscated the property of the leading tribesmen. They are also said to have stripped and flogged Boudicca and raped her daughters. These actions exacerbated widespread resentment at Roman rule.

Boudicca's warriors successfully defeated the Roman Ninth Legion and destroyed the capital of Roman Britain, then at Colchester. They went on to destroy London and Verulamium (St Albans). Thousands were killed. Finally, Boudicca was defeated by a Roman army led by Paulinus. Many Britons were killed and Boudicca is thought to have poisoned herself to avoid capture. The site of the battle, and of Boudicca's death, are unknown.

The 2nd cent. also saw important military and urban developments, particularly under the Emperor Hadrian. He visited Britain following military disturbances, and in ad 122 ordered the construction of Hadrian's Wall between the Tyne and the Solway.

Hadrian’s Wall was built on the orders of the Emperor Hadrian. The primary function of Hadrian’s Wall was to keep out the Picts. The Roman Army had advanced into north England but attacks by the Picts made life difficult for them. Hadrian’s Wall was started in AD 122 and it remains a remarkable piece of engineering in the environment it was built in.

Part of the wall and one of the forts

Hadrian’s Wall is 117 kilometers long and is built in stone. In places it is six meters high and three meters wide – enough for two soldiers to do sentry duty side-by-side. Every Roman mile (about 1500 meters) a mile-castle was built which housed twenty soldiers. Turrets guarded by soldiers were built every 500 meters. Major forts such as the one at Housesteads, were built along the wall at every eight kilometers. These could accommodate between 500 and 1000 Roman soldiers. Housesteads had a hospital, granary, barracks, workshop and washroom/toilets built. All the building was done by the Roman soldiers themselves. They were trained to do this and the army had its own skilled engineers who designed the wall. That so much of the Wall has survived is a testament to their building skills. The Picts nearly destroyed the wall three times but on every occasion it was rebuilt by the Romans. For nearly 250 years, Hadrian’s Wall was patrolled and guarded – right on the very edge of the Roman Empire.

The Picts were a group of Late Iron Age and Early Mediaeval people living in what is now eastern and northernScotland.. They lived to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde, and spoke the extinct Pictish language, thought to have been related to the Brythonic languages spoken by the Britons to the south. As for the inhabitants, the Romans first called them "Caledonians," then "Picti." Pict referred to the habit of the Picts to paint themselves in times of battle to present a more fearsome image to their enemies. When the Romans first ventured to Briton, this painting habit was also widespread amongst the more southern Celts but as they became domiciled into the Roman culture, this cultural activity was extinguished. It remained prevalent in the north Pictish society was typical of many Iron Age societies in northern Europe, having "wide connections and parallels"with neighbouring groups.^[2] The Scots, on the other hand, were a branch of the Irish Celts or Gaels. Ireland was divided between the earlier Cruithne (Picts, who migrated from Scotland around 200AD) and later arriving Goidels (Gaels), who were constantly at each others' throats. As Ireland never experienced a Roman invasion, it was a safe haven for raiders who plundered Roman provinces in England and Wales. All Celts in western continental Europe were subdued by the Romans. However, the Irish branch maintained their cultural development free of the Roman yoke. After the Romans left Britain in about AD453, the Romanized (subdued) Gaels of England became easy targets for the fierce Scotic sea raiders. Scotic is related to the term Scythic and was pronounced the same in some areas of Britain.

The Anglo-Saxon Times.

The Roman armies withdrew from Britain early in the fifth century because they were needed back home.. At this time, the Jutes and the Frisians from Denmark were also settling in the British Isles, but the Anglo-Saxon settlers were effectively their own masters in a new land and they did little to keep the legacy of the Romans alive. They replaced the Roman stone buildings with their own wooden ones, and spoke their own language, which gave rise to the English spoken today.

The Anglo-Saxons also brought their own religious beliefs, but the arrival of Saint Augustine in 597 converted most of the country to Christianity. The early settlers kept to small tribal groups, forming kingdoms and sub-kingdoms. By the ninth century, the country was divided into four kingdoms - Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and Wessex

The Anglo-Saxon period lasted for 600 years, from 410 to 1066, and in that time Britain's political landscape underwent many changes..

Alfred the Great: King of Wessex Born: 849 in Wantage, England Died: 899 in Winchester, England Reign: 871 - 899:

Alfred was an intelligent child who loved to learn and memorize poems. He traveled to Rome as a child where he met the pope. The pope anointed Alfred as an honorary consul of Rome. After Alfred's father died in 858, his brother Aethebald became king. Over the next several years each of his brothers died until his last elder brother, Aethelred, was crowned king. Throughout much of Alfred's life the Vikings had been raiding England. In 870, the Vikings had conquered all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except for Wessex. Alfred became his brother's second in command. He led the Wessex army to a great victory at the Battle of Ashdown. Alfred's brother Aethelred died in one of the battles and Alfred was crowned king. Over the next several years Alfred fought off the Vikings.

Ruling as King Alfred was a great leader in battle, but he might have been an even better leader during peacetime. Alfred founded schools and rebuilt monasteries. He even translated some classic works from Latin into English himself. Alfred also made other reforms and improvements to his kingdom including building forts throughout the country, establishing a strong navy, and bringing talented European scholars and craftsmen across the channel to England. He also established a national code of law. Death Alfred died in 899 and was succeeded by his son Edward.

King Arthur is a medieval, mythological figure who was the head of the kingdom Camelot and the Knights of the Round Table. It is not known if there was a real Arthur, though it is believed he may have been a Roman-affiliated military leader who successfully staved off a Saxon invasion during the 5th to 6th centuries. The Arthurian story developed into a full-fledged legend and complex story, with an emphasis on a noble kingdom called Camelot, the Knights of the Round Table and the queen, Guinevere, who has an affair with the knight Lancelot. Other aspects of the tale include the king's deadly conflict with his nephew or son, Mordred, and the knights' quest for the Holy Grail. In the 20th century, King Arthur also found his way to stage and screen. During the '60s, the myth found a home on Broadway with the musicalCamelot, which starred Richard Burton as Arthur. Later revivals would see Richard Harris—who starred in the 1967 movie version as well—and Robert Goulet portray the monarch. A more serious, grim take on Camelot was seen in the 1981 film Excalibur, with Helen Mirren in the role of Morgana, half-sister to the king.

The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an British order of chivalry. The King or Queen of the United Kingdom is Sovereign of the Order, which is limited to 24 living Knights or Ladies Companion. Stranger Knights (i.e. non-British recipients, usually Heads of State) and Royal Knights do not count towards this limit. The order's emblem is a garter with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense(Middle French: "shame on him who thinks evil of it") in gold lettering. Members of the order wear it on ceremonial occasions.

Various legends account for the origin of the Order. The most popular legend involves the "Countess of Salisbury", whose garter is said to have slipped from her leg while she was dancing at a court ball atCalais. When the surrounding courtiers sniggered, the king picked it up and returned it to her, exclaiming, "Honi soit qui mal y pense" ("Shame on him who thinks evil of it."), the phrase that has become the motto of the Order. This fable appears to have originated in France and was, perhaps, invented to bring discredit on the Order. There is a natural unwillingness to believe that the World's foremost Order of Chivalry had so frivolous a beginning. According to another legend, King Richard I was inspired in the 12th century by St George the Martyr while fighting in the Crusades to tie garters around the legs of his knights, who subsequently won the battle. King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order. The annual Garter Services, discontinued in 1805, were revived by King George VI in 1948 and have become an annual event. Each June, on Garter Day, the members of the Order, wearing their habits and garter insignia, meet at Windsor Castle. When any new Knights of the Garter are due for installation, an investiture ceremony is held in the Throne Room of Windsor Castle on the morning of Garter Day. This ceremony is attended by all Knights Companions of the order, wearing the ceremonial habits and garter insignia, and also by their wives.

Richard the Lionheart (1189-1199) Richard was the third son of Henry II. Little is known about Richard's education. Although he was born in Oxford and raised in England up to his eighth year, it is not known to what extent he used or understood English; he was an educated man who composed poetry in French. While a number of authors have speculated that Richard did not know the English language, the evidence available to historians does not provide a definitive case for this assumption. There are no contemporary accounts that state that Richard was ignorant of the language. By the late 12th century a knowledge of English was expected of those in positions of authority in England.

Richard was said to be very attractive; his hair was between red and blond, and he was light-eyed with a pale complexion. He was apparently of above average height From an early age he showed significant political and military ability, becoming noted for his chivalry and courage as he fought to control the rebellious nobles of his own territory. His elder brother Henry the Young King was crowned king of England during his father's lifetime.

He twice rebelled against his father before he became King of England in 1189, but based himself in his Duchy in Aquitaine inherited from his mother Eleanor. He spent only six months of his reign in England and spoke only French. He appointed William Longchamp as Chancellor of England during his absence but he was overthrown by Richard’s brother John.  Richard acquired a reputation as a leader and warrior becoming known as Richard ‘The Lion Heart’ or ‘Coeur de Lion’. His experience in warfare came from controlling rebellions in Poitou in the 1170s and against his father, Henry II, in 1183. He took up Henry's plans to recover Jerusalem on his accession in 1189 and set out to establish bases for crusades in Sicily in 1190 and Cyprus, which he took in 1191. Engaging in the siege of Acre, which he brought to a swift conclusion, he set off down the coast to Jaffa, conducting a fighting march against Saladin. In the third Crusade 1191–92 he won victories at Cyprus, Acre, and Arsuf (against Saladin), but failed to recover Jerusalem. While returning overland he was captured by the Duke of Austria, who handed him over to the emperor Henry VI. He was held prisoner until a large ransom was raised.  On his release he returned briefly to England, where his brother John had been ruling in his stead. His later years were spent in warfare in France, where he was killed by a crossbow bolt while besieging Châlus-Chabrol in 1199. He left no heir. Richard's contemporaneous image was that of a king who was also a knight, and that was apparently the first such instance of this combination. He was known as a valiant and competent military leader and individual fighter, courageous and generous. Richard, however, also received negative portrayals. During his life, he was criticised by chroniclers for having taxed the clergy both for the Crusade and for his ransom, whereas the church and the clergy were usually exempt from taxes. Victorian England was divided on Richard: many admired him as a crusader and man of God, erecting an heroic statue to him outside the Houses of Parliament. The late-Victorian scholar William Stubbs, on the other hand, thought him "a bad son, a bad husband, a selfish ruler, and a vicious man". During his ten years' reign, he was in England for no more than six months, and was totally absent for the last five years.

King Richard III

Richard was born in 1452 at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire. His father was Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York and his mother Cecily Neville. Richard had a claim to the English throne through both parents.

Wars of the Roses

His father's conflict with Henry VI was a major cause of the Wars of the Roses, which dominated Richard's early life. His father and older brother died at the Battle of Wakefield in 1460. In 1461, Richard's brother, Edward, became Edward IV and created him Duke of Gloucester. In 1470, Edward and Richard were exiled when Henry VI was briefly restored to the throne. The following year, they returned to England and Richard contributed to the Yorkist victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury which restored Edward to the throne.

The Princes in the Tower and seizure of the throne

When Edward died in April 1483, Richard was named as protector of the realm for Edward's son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. As the new king travelled to London from Ludlow, Richard met him and escorted him to the capital, where he was lodged in the Tower of London. Edward V's brother later joined him there. Richard has been accused of having his nephews murdered, but historians debate the boys' fate. It is possible that they died imprisoned in the tower but were not killed.

A publicity campaign was mounted condemning Edward IV's marriage to the boys' mother, Elizabeth Woodville, as invalid and their children illegitimate. On 25 June, an assembly of lords and commoners endorsed these claims. The following day, Richard III officially began his reign. He was crowned in July. The two young princes disappeared in August and were widely rumoured to have been murdered by Richard.

The beginning of the end

A rebellion raised in October by the Duke of Buckingham, Richard's former ally, quickly collapsed. However, Buckingham's defection, along with his supporters, eroded Richard's power and support among the aristocracy and gentry.

Death of a warrior king

In August 1485, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who was a Lancastrian claimant to the throne living in France, landed in South Wales. He marched east and engaged Richard in battle on Bosworth Field in Leicestershire on 22 August. Although Richard possessed superior numbers, several of his key lieutenants defected. Refusing to flee, Richard was killed in battle and Henry Tudor took the throne as Henry VII.

While serving as king for just two years, Richard III championed some principles of justice that still guide legal systems of today. He proclaimed that laws had to be administered impartially and justice had to be meted out quickly. He also established the concept that everyone had the right to be represented by a lawyer regardless of his or her ability to pay.