Types of imagination. The nature of performance distinguished:

• reproductive (reproductive) imagination - the products which were already known before; • creative (productive) imagination.

By degree of freedom, arbitrariness determine:

• Passive imagination - manifested in painful fantasies, delusions, or in such a fantasy that has no realized purpose; • Active imagination - which takes place within the creative activity, subdued particular purpose.

The nature of the images determine:

• Specific imagination - it conceived certain objects, things, etc; • abstract imagination, which operates more generalized images (diagrams, symbols).

54. Explain significance of intercourse issue and its basic social-psychological phenomen. Statistically significant means the relationship in the results did not occur by random chance. Most researchers work with samples, defined as a section of the population. A population is defined as the complete collection to be studied. Since a researcher is not looking at everyone, there is a possibility that they will collect, by accident, a sample that will lead them to erroneous conclusions. To avoid this, nearly all statistical tests look for statistical significance. Using our autism and vaccine example, after several tests had been conducted, the researchers found that there was no relationship. They could make this assertion with confidence because their results were statistically significant despite using a sample. So, even though they didn't test every person who had a vaccine, the researchers found no relationship between those who had the vaccine and those who were diagnosed with autism. Statistical significance (everywhere, not just in psychology) refers to the likelihood that a particular effect might have occurred for some other reason than the reason that the study suggests. In short, when a researcher runs an experiment and gets a result, s'he has to account for two possibilities:

1. That the result s'he sees occurred because of whatever the researcher did, which confirms his/her hypothesis, or...

2. That the result s'he sees falls within the range of things one would normally expect to see, and has nothing to do with what the researcher did or the hypothesis being tested.

So in a normal case, a researcher will have at least two conditions: one in which s'he does the actual test, and another in which s'he does nothing at all. The second condition gives a baseline: it shows what one would normally expect, and how much variation there is in what one might normally expect. The researcher can then compare the results from the first condition to the results from the second condition, to have some idea of how likely it would be to get the test result (condition 1) if s'he did absolutely nothing (condition 2). That likelihood is the significance: the more unlikely it is that s'he would get the test result by doing absolutely nothing, the more confident s'he can be that the result was due to what she did. Think of it in bowling terms: anyone can roll the ball down the lane once and get a strike by pure accident. But if you see some bowler get six strikes in a row, well... the probability of doing that 'by accident' is very small, so we can be confident that the bowler is doing something to make the strikes happen.

55. Show up significance of language and speech as means and content of communication. The way that we send and receive messages is communication. Communication can be visual, verbal and/or nonverbal. We communicate through how we present ourselves, how we look, what we wear and whether we are scowling or smiling. We communicate nonverbally through gestures such as a shrug of the shoulders or pointing, and we communicate verbally through a sigh, laugh, or a word. There are many ways to communicate. We can use a hug to show love or we can say, sign or write the word love.

When we want to send messages that can be understood by people in our community, we use language. We can use English, Spanish, French or any other language that is shared by the people around us, so that they can understand what we are saying. Language is not holistic; it uses specific vocabulary and specific grammatical rules. We use language to communicate specific concepts and experiences to others. We learn a specific language from our family and teachers, thus we learn the language from the community around us. Language may include gestures, signs, pictures, and/or speech. Language is a shared code. Language is an arbitrary code that uses symbols to represent real objects and events. Language has rules that specify how to use the code. Language is used intentionally or purposefully. Language is a learned code. Language is learned through social interaction. Most people communicate through speaking. Speech is verbal language. Speech uses the same systems in the body used for breathing, swallowing, and eating. Speech involves muscle programming, movement, and coordination. Speech is complex and involves the coordination of breathing, phonation (voice), resonation and articulation.

56. Discuss an issue of individuality and personality in modern psychology. Individuality is the uniqueness of the individual, it is set of features which belongs to only for him. In psychology, the problem of individuality is put in connection with the integral characteristic of an individual in a variety of its thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, abilities, motivations, desires, interests, habits, moods, feelings, qualities of perceptive processes, intelligence, aptitudes, abilities, and other characteristics. Individuality is realized either through a person's behavior in a situation of communication, and through the cultivation of them different abilities in the activities.

The term "individuality" is used as a synonym for the word "individual" to refer to a unique combination of features inherent in individual organisms and distinguish the organism from all others belonging to the same species.

Individuality, therefore, is the personality in its originality. When people talk about individuality, then have in view the originality of the personality. Usually the word "individuality" is defined any dominant feature of the personality, making it unlike to others.

Every person is individual, individuality of one person manifested very bright, convex, in others - a little expressively, unobtrusive. Sometimes peaks of external manifestations of originality of personality occur in the early stages of human development (3 to 5 years), and then subside or become hidden.

Individuality characterizes a personality more concrete and detailed and thus more fully. It is a regular subject of research at studying of as the psychology of the personality, and other areas of psychology.

57. Describe origin and development of temperament theory (Hippocratus, Galhen, I.P. Pavlov)  Temperament: constitutionally based individual differences in emotion, motor, reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations and over time • Temperament is biologically based: Heredity, neural, and hormonal factors affect response to the environment. • Temperament can be modulated by environmental factors; parental response.

Five Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory of the Greek Historian Hippocrates  who believed certain human behaviors were caused by body fluids blood (sanguis), bile (cholera ) black bile; and phlegm. Next, Galen developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation  De Temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna then extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams.

Ivan Pavlov all theorized on the four temperaments and greatly shaped our modern theories of temperament. 

From the beginning, with Galen's ancient temperaments, it was observed that pairs of temperaments shared certain traits in common.

sanguine quick, impulsive, and relatively short-lived reactions.

phlegmatic a longer response-delay, but short-lived response.

choleric short response time-delay, but response sustained for a relatively long time.

melancholic long response time-delay, response sustained at length, if not, seemingly, permanently.

Therefore, it was evident that the sanguine and choleric shared a common trait: quickness of response, while the melancholy and phlegmatic shared the opposite, a longer response. The melancholy and choleric, however, shared a sustained response, and the sanguine and phlegmatic shared a short-lived response. That meant that the Choleric and melancholy both would tend to hang on to emotions like anger, and thus appear more serious and critical than the fun-loving sanguine, and the peaceful phlegmatic. However, the choleric would be characterized by quick expressions of anger, while the melancholy would build up anger slowly, silently, before exploding. Also, the melancholy and sanguine would be sort of "opposites", as the choleric and phlegmatic, since they have opposite traits.

58. Reveal psychological nature of character and its development. Character is actually a set of behavior traits that define what type of person you are. People who have a positive social character are often found to be more easily trusted by others.   Character, however, comes from learned behavior inside your early relationships.  This learning comes from both observation and interaction with your parents, teachers, and other social networks.  While character does have an “inborn” link due to its finite relationship to personality, character is actually designed and developed from and during our early relationships until they become ingrained.  Character as well as belief and value systems are inherently linked. Character can be changed purposely in order to better get along in groups or it can vary situationally.  An example of situational character is the person who never misses a church service but does have absences at work.  Or vice versa. Character traits are the attitudes and beliefs that you have toward your life, work, family, and community.  Character traits may be positive, negative, or somewhere in between.  There is a direct link between positive character traits and a happy and successful life.  Negative character traits that have been “strongly and long” ingrained usually do cause strife at some point.  But a focus on positive change can and does work. 

Character development is crucial in stories exploring how people relate to each other and their environments. If all your characters stay unchanged, even through extreme circumstances, your novel can feel flat; two-dimensional. Developing your characters creates variety and makes characters vivid. Here are 9 steps to creating satisfying character arcs: ~Summarise your character’s core goals and motivations; ~Plan external obstacles your character will face; ~Plan internal obstacles to character development; ~Give your main character foils; ~Include a reversal that tests your character; ~Use actions and dialogue to develop character; ~Let your character surprise you and your readers; ~Decide how your character will respond to all changes: cirumstantial, environmental, relational; ~If your main character’s arc is flat, compensate in others.

59. Denote natural pre-conditions and psychological nature of abilities and gifts formation and development. Gift giving is a social, cultural and economic experience; a material and social communication exchange that is inherent across human societies and instrumental in maintaining social relationships and expressing feelings. Gifts are bestowed in celebration of key life events, a medium for nurturing personal relationships, to encourage economic exchange and to socialise children into appropriate behaviour patterns. French anthropologist-sociologist Marcel Mauss presented a theoretical analysis of the gift-giving process, that was based on his examination of giftgiving amongst various primitive, secluded, or ancient societies. He concluded that giftgiving is a self-perpetuating system of reciprocity and summarised three types of obligations which preserve gift-giving: 1. The obligation to give. 2. The obligation to receive. 3. The obligation to repay. The requirement to give may be ingrained in religious or moral necessities, with a strong need to recognise and maintain a status hierarchy and to establish or maintain peaceful relations, or merely the expectation of reciprocal giving. These motives, which do not acknowledge purely selfless giving, become embedded into the fabric of a society so that under appropriate conditions an individual is socially obligated to give.

There are four core elements of gifting that are drawn from the literature; the giver, the recipient, the occasion and the gift.

60. Explain an issue of personality and its manifestations in modern psychology. Individuality is the uniqueness of the individual, it is set of features which belongs to only for him. In psychology, the problem of individuality is put in connection with the integral characteristic of an individual in a variety of its thoughts, feelings, expressions of will, abilities, motivations, desires, interests, habits, moods, feelings, qualities of perceptive processes, intelligence, aptitudes, abilities, and other characteristics. Individuality is realized either through a person's behavior in a situation of communication, and through the cultivation of them different abilities in the activities.

The term "individuality" is used as a synonym for the word "individual" to refer to a unique combination of features inherent in individual organisms and distinguish the organism from all others belonging to the same species.

Individuality, therefore, is the personality in its originality. When people talk about individuality, then have in view the originality of the personality. Usually the word "individuality" is defined any dominant feature of the personality, making it unlike to others.

Every person is individual, individuality of one person manifested very bright, convex, in others - a little expressively, unobtrusive. Sometimes peaks of external manifestations of originality of personality occur in the early stages of human development (3 to 5 years), and then subside or become hidden.

Individuality characterizes a personality more concrete and detailed and thus more fully. It is a regular subject of research at studying of as the psychology of the personality, and other areas of psychology.