- •The role of translation and interpretation in present-day interstate and international relations.
- •Duties of Interpreters and Translators
- •Important Qualities for Interpreters and Translators
- •Prehistory of European interpretation and translation.
- •Translation and interpretation in Ancient Egypt, Babylon, Assyria.
- •Employment of translators and interpreters in wars in ancient times.
- •Aquila’s translation of the Old Testament.
- •Symmachus’ translation of the Old Testament.
- •Jerome’s Latin Vulgate.
- •Translation in Ancient Rome. Livius Andronicus and his translations in the 3rd century b.C.
- •Cicero and the birth of the historically second principle of translation.
- •Deliberate violations of the second (sense-to-sense) way/principle of translation by Horace and Apuleius and their consequences in the Middle Ages and later periods.
- •Principles of translation of ecclesiastic and secular works during the Middle Ages.
- •Translation in England during the medieval period. King Alfred the Great and Abbot Aelfric as translators.
- •Schools of translation in the Middle Ages.
- •Factors favoring the revival of translation during the period of the Renaissance in Europe.
- •Translation in France in the Renaissance period. E. Dolet and his principles of translation.
- •The belles-infidels’ principle of translation (j. Amyot, n.P. D’Ablancourt and others).
- •Translation in Germany in the period of the Renaissance (Steinhöwel, von Eyb, and others).
- •The Luther Bible and its significance. Luther’s influence on the emergence of the German language and national identity.
- •The Tyndale Bible and its importance in shaping and influencing the English language.
- •Translation in the periods of Classicism and Enlightenment (seventeenth – eighteenth centuries).
- •The epoch of Romanticism and protests against the unrestricted freedom of translation in England, Germany and France.
- •The revival of translation in Ukraine in the 14th-16th centuries (translation of the Bible and other ecclesiastic works).
- •The Kyiv Mohyla Academy and development of translation in the 17th-18th centuries Ukraine (I. Maksymovych, f. Prokopovych, d. Tuptalo, h. Skovoroda).
- •I. Kotlyarevskyi’s free interpretation of Virgil’s Aeneid.
- •The methods of translation of p. Hulak-Artemovskyi, Ye. Hrebinka, l. Borovykovskyi, p. Bilets’kyi-Nosenko in the first half of the 19th century.
- •P. Kulish as a translator. His methods of translation.
- •M. Shashkevych, I. Vahylevych, y. Holovats’kyi and the beginning of translation in Halychyna in 1830s.
- •L. Ukrainka and I. Franko as translators.
- •The most often employed methods of translation and the artistic level of translation of classical British, American, French, German and Italian prose/poetic works during the 1920s and 1930s.
- •The revival of Ukrainian translation after World War II in the mid and 1940s (m.Ryl’skyi, m.Tereshchenko, m.Bazhan, m.Lukash, l.Pervomaiskyi).
- •The historical circumstances and preconditions of birth and development of Ukrainian criticism of literary artistic translation in the 20th centurary.
- •Domestication vs. Translation. Their difference.
Aquila’s translation of the Old Testament.
Aquila "Ponticus" (fl. 130 AD) of Sinope (modern-day Sinop, Turkey) was a translator of the Old Testament into Greek, proselyte, and disciple of Rabbi Akiva.[1][2]
Only fragments of this translation have survived in what remains of fragmentary documents taken from the Books of Kings and the Psalms found in the old Cairo Geniza in Fustat, Egypt,
In Jewish writings he is referred to as עקילס (Aquilas). Aquila's version is said to have been used in place of the Septuagint in Greek-speaking synagogues. The Christians generally disliked it, alleging that it rendered the Messianic passages incorrectly, but Jerome and Origen speak in its praise. Origen incorporated it in his Hexapla.[5]
The surviving fragments of this translation, and of other Greek translations forming part of Origen's Hexapla, are now being re-published (with additional materials discovered since Field's edition) by an international group of Septuagint scholars. This work is being carried out as The Hexapla Project [6] under the auspices of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies,[7] and directed by Peter J. Gentry (Southern Baptist Theological Seminary), Alison G. Salvesen (University of Oxford), and Bas ter Haar Romeny (Leiden University).
Symmachus’ translation of the Old Testament.
Much was translated in ancient times also from Greek into Egyptian and vice versa, and partly from Hebrew into Greek. The next best known translation of the Old Testament into Greek, but performed this time meaning-to-meaning/sense-to-sense, was accomplished by Simmachus in the second century BC.Later on, with the political, economic and military strengthening of the Roman Empire, more and more translations were performed from Greek into Latin. Moreover, much of the rich literature of all genres from ancient Rome has developed exclusively on the basis of translations from old Greek.
Jerome’s Latin Vulgate.
The Vulgate (/ˈvʌlɡeɪt, -ɡɪt/) is a late fourth-century Latin translation of the Bible that became, during the 16th century, the Catholic Church's officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible.
The translation was largely the work of St. Jerome, who, in 382 AD, was commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina ("Old Latin") collection of biblical texts in Latin then in use by the Church. Once published, it was widely adopted and eventually eclipsed the Vetus Latina and, by the 13th century, was known as the "versio vulgata" [1] (the "version commonly-used") or, more simply, in Latin as vulgata or in Greek as βουλγάτα ("Vulgate").
The Catholic Church affirmed it as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent (1545–63 AD).
The Vulgate is usually credited as being the first translation of the Old Testament into Latin directly from the Hebrew Tanakh, rather than the Greek Septuagint. Jerome's extensive use of exegetical material written in Greek, on the other hand, as well as his use of the Aquiline and Theodotiontic columns of the Hexapla, along with the somewhat paraphrastic style in which he translated makes it difficult to determine exactly how direct the conversion of Hebrew to Latin was.
The Latin biblical texts in use before the Latin Vulgate are usually referred to collectively as the Vetus Latina, or "Old Latin Bible", or occasionally the "Old Latin Vulgate". (Here "Old Latin" means that they are older than the Vulgate and written in Latin, not that they are written in Old Latin. Likewise the Latin Vulgate was so named because it was the Latin counterpart to the Greek Vulgate; it was not written in Vulgar Latin.) The translations in the Vetus Latina had accumulated piecemeal over a century or more; they were not translated by a single person or institution, nor uniformly edited. The individual books varied in quality of translation and style, and different manuscripts witness wide variations in readings. Jerome, in his preface to the Vulgate gospels, commented that there were "as many [translations] as there are manuscripts".
The earliest known use of the term Vulgata to describe the new Latin translation was made by Roger Bacon in the 13th century.[35]