18. The Verb - a general overview

The verb denotes a process. Processes are usually referred to as actions or states. The word "action" means a process of being active and implies an exhibition (conscious or unconscious) of force or energy. A state is a process of being in a certain mode or form of existence conditioned by a set of temporary or permanent circum­stances.

The principal forms of the verb are: the infinitive, the past indefinite and the past participle (Participle II) – ­write, wrote, written. The present participle formed by

means of the suffix -ing cannot be regarded as a principal form of the verb as it is derived from the infinitive (write, writing).

According to the way in which the past indefinite and the past participle are formed, verbs are divided into:

a) regular or standard verbs which form the past in­definite and the past participle by adding -ed to the stem of the verb or only -d if the stem ends in -e;

b) irregular or non-standard verbs, numbering about 200, which form the past indefinite and the past Participle in a different way (they do not present a uniform group);

c) mixed verbs whose Past Indefinite is of the regular type and the past participle of the irregular type (ten in all): hew, lade, mow, rive, saw, sew, show, sow, strew, swell.

The various forms that a verb can take fall under two main divisions:

a) finite verbal forms or predicate verbal forms, which are used in the function of the simple predicate or the first verbal part of any other kind of predicate being limited by or bound to some subject with which they agree in person and number;

b) non-finite verbal forms or non-predicate verbal forms, which cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence but only as part of it and which have no grammatical subject

with which they agree in person and number. They are three in number: the infinitive, the gerund and the participle.

Syntactic characteristics. Verbs are associated with a preceding noun or its equivalent; and with a following noun or its equivalent (Tom studies German). Verbs are associated with adverbs (He plays the piano well). In a sentence the verb in its finite forms is always the predicate or part of a compound predicate. The non-finite verbal forms fulfil various functions in the sentence.

19. The Adverb. General

The adverb may be defined as a word which denotes either the degree of a property, or the propety of an action, or the circumstances under which an action takes place.

According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:

a) adverbs of time, definite or indefinite - today, tomorrow, soon, etc.

b) adverbs of repetition or frequency - often, seldom, ever, never, someimes, etc.

c) adverbs of place and direction - inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.

d) adverbs of cause and consequence - therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.,

e) adverbs of manner - kindly, quickly, hard, etc.,

f) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity - very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.

Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctve. Interrogative adverbs - when, when, why, how - are used in special. interrogative senten­ces: Why didn't you tell me before? Relative and conjunctive adverbs - where, when, why, how - are used to introduce subordinate clauses: They had a warm hollow in the sandhills where the wind did not come. I should like to know when he will come. Relative adverbs introduce attributive clauses, conjunctive adverbs introduce subject, predicative and object clauses.

Among the adverbs there is a group of qualitative adverbs which have degrees of comparison; the synthetic way of forming degrees of comparison – long, longer, longest – the analytic one - brightly, more brightly, most brightly – and the suppletive type represented by a few adverbs – well, better, best; badly, worse, worst.

The syntactic function of the adverb in the sentence is usually that of an adverbial modifier. Occasionally the adverb may also be used as an attribute: The trees overhead deepened the gloom of the hour.