Implication.

Another type of indirect meaning is inference. Inference is an indirect

proposition independent of negation that can possibly be inferred from the original

utterance, but not necessarily so.

e.g. She did her best to pass the exam.

34.Speech act theory. Types of speech acts.

For much of the history of linguistics and the philosophy of language,

language was viewed primarily as a way of making factual assertions, and the

other uses of language tended to be ignored. However, the acclaimed work of the

philosopher J. L. Austin (1911-1960) led philosophers to pay more attention to the

way in which language is used in everyday activities. J.L. Austin claims that many

utterances (things people say) are equivalent to actions. When someone says: “I

name this ship” or “I now pronounce you man and wife”, the utterance creates a

new social or psychological reality. Speech acts theory broadly explains these

utterances as having three parts or aspects: locutionary, illocutionary and

perlocutionary acts.

Locutionary acts are simply the speech acts that have taken place.

Illocutionary acts are the real actions which are performed by the utterance,

where saying equals doing, as in betting, plighting one’s troth, welcoming and

warning.

Perlocutionary acts are the effects of the utterance on the listener, who

accepts the bet or pledge of marriage, is welcomed or warned.

Some linguists have attempted to classify illocutionary acts into a number of

categories or types. David Crystal, quoting J.R. Searle, gives five such categories:

representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declarations.

Representatives – here the speaker asserts a proposition to be true, using

such verbs as: affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report.

Directives – here the speaker tries to make the hearer do something, with

such words as: ask, beg, challenge, command, dare, invite, insist, request.

Commissives – here the speaker commits himself (or herself) to a (future)

course of action, with verbs such as: guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow,

undertake.

Expressives – the speaker expresses an attitude to or about a state of affairs,

using such verbs as: apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret,

thank, welcome.

Declarations – the speaker alters the external status or condition of an

object or situation, solely by making the utterance: I now pronounce you man and

wife, I sentence you to be hanged by the neck until you be dead, I name this ship...

Other scholars identify more pragmatic types of sentences. They include

constatives, promisives, menacives, requestives, injunctives, offertives,

permissives, prohibitives, and quesitives.

Constatives are statements about something. They are always assertions,

never questions or inducements. e.g. This is my cat.

Promisives are sentences containing a promise. Just like constatives, they

are always declarative. e.g. We’ll get you a new book.

The same is true for menacives – sentences containing a threat. e.g. You’ll

be sorry.

Directives induce the addressee to some action. e.g. Open the door. Come

here.

Two types of directives are usually differentiated: requestives – sentences

containing a request, and injunctives – sentences containing an order.

Cf. Please help me with this suitcase. Get out of here!

Offertives are sentences containing an offer. e.g. Have a cigarette.

Permissives are sentences containing a permission or asking for a

permission.

e.g. You may take this apple.

Prohibitives contain prohibition. e.g. You are not allowed to go outside after 10 p.m.

Quesitives are sentences containing a question. e.g. What’s your name?