1. Speaking in public: the basic concepts

Public speaking is a fascinating form of communication. It has been practiced since the times of ancient Greece and in the 21^st century with all its computer technologies and the advent of mass communication this simple way to communicate (one person talking to a group of people, “one to many”) has remained one of the most influential forms of human speech interaction. “This event retains the aura it has had since the first orator stood before the Athenian polis” [Collins 2012: 4]. Basically this mode of communication has not changed during the ages. It seems to be very simple in terms of technology. However, people are still willing to listen to other people’s public addresses. “Against all the expectations and regular predictions of its demise, public speech still counts. It always will and it is a skill that needs to be mastered” [Collins 2012: 5].

To master this skill it is necessary to understand the fundamental ideas and principles of public speaking, described in the theory of rhetoric.

Traditionally rhetoric is defined as the discipline that studies public speech. In a broader sense the sphere of rhetoric embraces all forms of persuasive communication. In other words, rhetoric is concerned with goal-oriented speech, speech designed to achieve a goal. Admittedly, all our speech is characterized by a certain degree of persuasion, but rhetorical discourse, public speaking, in particular, is based on conscious planning and is designed to be persuasive.

Some definitions of rhetoric presented below illustrate different interpretations of its subject matter:

Rhetoric is the art of finding in the given case all the available means of persuasion (Aristotle).

Rhetoric is the art of winning the soul by discourse (Plato).

Rhetoric is speech designed to persuade (Cicero).

Rhetoric is the art of speaking well (Quintillian).

Rhetoric is the art, practice and study of human communication (Andrea Lunsford).

Rhetoric is an instrumental use of language. Rhetoric is communication that attempts to coordinate social action. For this reason, rhetorical communication is explicitly pragmatic (Gerard A.Hauser).

The basic function of rhetoric is the use of words by human agents or to induce actions in other human agents (Kenneth Burke).

It follows from the definitions that rhetoric can be described in the following terms: practice, art, theory. In this chapter we will give an overview of the basic concepts of the theory of rhetoric which are essential for acquiring expertise in rhetorical practice and mastering the art of public speaking.

One of the basic concepts of classical rhetoric is the concept of rhetorical canons. They were defined by Cicero more than 2000 years ago and are still indispensable for those who want to become competent public speakers. The first five date back to classical rhetoric, the sixth was added later. The rhetorical canons include:

• invention, deciding what to say;

• disposition, organization of ideas;

• elocution, or style, the language used in the speech;

• delivery, the actual presentation of speech;

• memory, keeping ideas in mind;

• monitoring, taking into account the audience response.

These guidelines offer a useful and concise system for understanding and mastering the process of speech planning and presentation. Describing each canon we will focus on how they can serve as the basis for effective public speaking.

As we go through each canon and give an overview of each stage of public presentation in terms of rhetorical theory and practice we should consider two important features of rhetorical discourse, which will determine our approach.

The first important thing is the combination of stereotype and creativity. On the one hand, public speech is guided and restricted by the rhetorical tradition with rules prescribed for each step of public speaking. On the other hand, each public presentation is a unique “rhetorical event”; it is always new, it reflects the personality of the speaker and the particular speech situation. In fact, that is what accounts for the special attraction of this form of communication.

Another important thing is special focus on the person or people, the speaker and the audience. Rhetorical discourse can be viewed as a speech activity determined by the social and cultural context and realizing the creative potential of an individual.

We shall look at public speaking as an active dynamic process in which both the speaker and the audience are involved, a two-sided interaction.

Discussing the fundamentals of rhetoric we should spend some time on the three components of public speaking, known as Aristotle’s system of arguing. For centuries it has been the cornerstone of effective public speaking. This system includes three components: logos, pathos and ethos.

Logos consists in persuading the audience by being reasonable and referring to facts. In other words, Logos is the argument of logic.

Pathos is the method of arguing by appealing to the emotions of the audience.

Ethos refers to the moral sphere: the speaker influences the audience because they trust him and his judgment. According to Aristotle the insight of the speaker who appears to be trustworthy and convincing will always be preferred by an audience over the speaker who appears the opposite

Today ethos is viewed in a broader way: it’s the social and cultural norms of speech interaction. Admittedly, ethos as the reflection of historical, social and cultural characteristics has a great influence on rhetorical discourse, its content and style. This influence is realized in the following way: the speaker chooses speech strategies and language means which are appropriate and goal-oriented.