Present Past

Future I Future II

Generally speaking, the major tense-distinction in English is undoubtedly that which is traditionally described as an opposition of past::present. But this is best regarded as a contrast of past:: non-past. Quite a lot of scholars do not recognize the existence of future tenses, because what is described as the 'future' tense in English is realized by means of auxiliary verbs will and shall. Although it is undeniable that will and shall occur in many sentences that refer to the future, they also occur in sentences that do not. And they do not necessarily occur in sentences with a future time reference. That is why future tenses are often treated as partly modal.

5. The Category of Aspect

The category of aspect is a linguistic representation of the objective category of Manner of Action. It is realized through the opposition Continuous::Non-Continuous (Progressive::Non-Progressive). The realization of the category of aspect is closely connected with the lexical meaning of verbs.

There are some verbs in English that do not normally occur with progressive aspect, even in those contexts in which the majority of verbs necessarily take the progressive form. Among the so-called ‘non-progressive’ verbs are think, understand, know, hate, love, see, taste, feel, possess, own, etc. The most striking characteristic that they have in common is the fact that they are ‘stative’ - they refer to a state of affairs, rather than to an action, event or process. It should be observed, however, that all the ‘non-­progressive' verbs take the progressive aspect under particular circumstances. As the result of internal transposition verbs of non-progressive nature can be found in the Continuous form: Now I'm knowing you. Generally speaking the Continuous form has at least two semantic features - duration (the action is always in progress) and definiteness (the action is always limited to a definite point or period of time). In other words, the purpose of the Continuous form is to serve as a frame which makes the process of the action more concrete and isolated.

6. The object of mini – syntax: phrase. The problem of phrase theory in English . Classification of phrases . New conception of phrase structure in English .

Theodulphus of Orleans portrayed Grammar with whip and shears – to spur the lazy and prune faults. Modern Grammarians are more concerned to describe language as it is than to lay down rules. We have discarded the shears [ ] so that students of this lecture need only the whip anyone is a grammarian, even if his technical vocabulary is undeveloped, who can point out that ‘John runs’ is a bit of language consisting of two other bits (or three ‘John’ ‘run’and ‘s’). Grammar is very much concerned with bits consisting of other bits and the relation between the bits. More technically will talk of ‘units’ rather than ‘bits’. And since the word ‘grammar’is is often used widely for all systematic study of ordinary, natural language, we will use the term ‘syntax’ for the placing and the relationship of the units of the language. The relationship of the units within ‘John runs’ is clear enough. The elements ‘run’ and ‘s’ have a close relationship than any other two elements. Some grammarians prefer to study varying forms of a word (run, runs, ran, running) in a separate study of ‘morphology’, especially for the classical languages. For English, many find it convenient, to include ‘runs’ into syntax ---- the distinction ‘Morphology’ and ‘Syntax’. Sometimes the relationship of the units with a larger unit is less immediate evident. A pretty young student is not necessarily a student that is young, and if the Queen wears an old golddress, it is not because she cannot afford a new one. But do radical workers and students include or only those who are radical?

Grammar is traditionally subdivided into two different but inter-related areas of study. Morphology and Syntax. Morphology is the study of how words are formed out of smaller units (traditionally called morphemes) and so addresses questions such as ‘What are the variants component parts (morphemes) of a word like?’

Untidisestablishmentarianism.

And what kind if principles determine the ways in which the parts are combined together to form the phrases and sentences , and so addresses questions like ‘Why is it Ok to say ‘Who did you see Mary with!’ ‘Who did you see Mary and?’* What kinds of principles determine the ways in which we can and cannot combine the words together to form phrases and sentences.² The part of the grammar that concerns itself with the structure of phrases and sentences is called syntax. ‘Syntax’, then, is devoted primarily to the study of groups of words in utterances rather than single words and their modifications. This is but a rough-and –ready definition, to be sure. Not all authorities agree in their delimitation of syntax as opposed to inflexional morphology. Leonard Bloomfield has stated that “Syntactic constructions, then, are the constructions in which none of the immediate constituents is a bound form” of course it is necessary to define what a construction is, in the first place. The dividing up of sentences into IC’s is not an always easy matter. The first step may be obvious enough, as when the English sentence “This is the pen with which I write ” is broken down into a subject of discourse This and the predication, consisting of the rest of the utterance . the latter in turn can be broken into a verb form ‘is’ followed by a predicative and so on.

It is an important task in describing any language how major and minor elements of sentences are related to one another.

In grammar, a phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence.

Most phrases have central word, which defines the type of the phrase. Some phrases however, can be headless. Phrases may be classified by the type of the head they take.

1. Prepositional phrase (PP) – with a preposition as the head (e.g. in love, over the rainbow);

2. Noun phrase (NP) – with a noun as head (e.g. The black cat)

3. Verb phrase (VP) – with a verb as head.(e.g. eat cheese, jump up and down);

4. Adjectival phrase (AP) – with an adjective as head. (e.g. full of toys);

5. Adverbial phrase (Adv.P) – with an adverb as head. (e.g. very carefully).

Thus a phrase is a syntactic structure which has syntactic properties divided from its head.

The Classification of Phrases according to L. Bloomfield (Language 19330).

L. Bloomfield makes no distinction between predicative combinations and any other combinations.

Phrase

Endocentric Exocentric

Phrases belonging

to the same form class as the head.

Phrases don’t share the form class fo any of it’s constituent. (head).

e.g. beside me, with me.

Jon ran.

Coordinate Subordinate

e.g. boys and girls fresh milk

Clever student.

According to Kruisinga

Syntactic Group

Close Loose

(One is the leading element) e.g. a country doctor, mild weather.

(Comparatively independent) men and women boys and girls friends and enemies.

According to Otto Jespersen

Word combinations

‘Junction’ ‘Nexus’

Adjunct Adnex

Dependent Independent

According to Blokh M.L.

(A Course in Theoretical English Grammar)

According to Phrase

Equipotent Dominational

(One is principal the

other is dominated)

“kernel - adjunct”

Syndetic Asyndetic

e.g. prose and poetry

non-consecutive

cumulative

Innercom. Outercom.

7.The definitions given to the Simple Sentences by different scholar.Comment them with a critical eye.The classifation of the simple sentences.Syntagmatics and pragmatics of the English sentences.

-According to the БЛОХ: Sentences having one verb-predicate and more than one subject to it, if the subjects form actually separate (though in-terdependent) predicative connections, cannot be considered as simple, either. E.g.: The door was open, and also the front win-dow. The simple sentence, as any sentence in general, is or-ganised as a system of function-expressing positions, the con-tent of the functions being the reflection of a situational event. 

-The basic predicative meanings of the sentence are expressed by finite verbs which are connected with the subjects of the sentence. The sentence which has one predicate is called a simple sentence.

-A simple sentence is a sentence with one independent clause.Note what the definition does not say. It doesn't say that a simple sentence is short or easy to understand. It doesn't say anything about phrases. A simple sentence can have forty-seven phrases, but only one independent clause.

Classification of simple sentences according to the syntactic structure

From the structural viewpoint simple sentences are subdivided into the one-member and two-member sentences.

The two-member sentences have 2 principal parts – the subject and predicate, but most usually they are expanded by various secondary parts:

• He could not help smiling.

• Russia is one of the largest countries in the world.

If one or both of principal parts are missing, the sentence is called an incomplete or elliptical:

• What are you doing tonight?

• Going to the theatre.

The missing parts of the sentence can be easily understood from the context: 9I am going to the theatre.

The one-member sentence has only one principle part (expressed by either a noun, or a verb) which is neither the subject, nor the predicate and it makes the sentence complete: 1. nominal one-member sentences:

• Dusk – of a summer night.

• What a nice view!

verbal one-member sentences:

• No! To have his friendship, his admiration, but not at that price.

• Keep clear of the road!

The unextended sentence consists only of principal parts of the sentence. Both two-member and one-member sentences may be unextended:

• She is a student.

• Birds fly.

• Winter!

The extended sentence consists of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts of the sentence (objects, attributes, adverbial modifiers, direct address, parenthesis):

• Birds come back from warm countries.

• A friend in need is a friend indeed.

Simple Sentences

One-member sentences

(have only one member –either a subject or predicate)

Nominal

(the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun)

(when it has a subject and a predicate)

Unextended

(Elementary)

A sentence consisting only of the primary or principal parts is called unextended

For example:

Winter!

She is a student!

Two-member sentences

(have two members – a subject and predicate)

e.g. Fleur had established immediate contact with an architect.

Complete Incomplete

(when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing) are also called elliptical

Extended

An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers)

For example:

The two native woman stole furtive glances at Sarie.

Types of Sentences	Synthetic forms	Analytical forms	Non-Factual Tense forms
Simple sentence	Ideas be hanged! Why not go there? If only that were true!	May it come true! I should to see this film.	If I only knew!
Complex sentences with a subject clause	It is required that all be present.	It is important that all should come. It is likely he may come.	It is time the boy come.

TABLE 5

Complex sentence with a predicative clause	He looks as if he were surprise.	It looks as if the weather may change. The order is that we should move	It seems as if everybody knew. It looks as if he had known it a long ago.
Complex sentences with an attributive clause		The order is that we should move surprised us.	If I only knew!
Complex sentences with an object clause	I wish he were here.	He ordered that we should come. We feared least he	I wish I knew it. I wish I had never met him.

		Should find it out. I wish he would come.
Complex sentence with an adverbial clause of comparison	The stranger looked at me as if he were surprised.		He glanced at me as if he knew. The girl spoke as if she had learned it all by heart.
Complex sentence with an adverbial concessive clause		Tired as he might be, he continued his way. Though he might be tired, he continued his way . No matter how tired he might be, he continued his way. Whatever faults the book may have, it is interesting enough.
Complex sentence with an adverbial clause of purpose		I tell you this so that you may understand the situation. We put the matches away lest the baby should find the box.
Complex sentence with an adverbial conditional clause	If I were you …	I should come … I should called on you yesterday …	If I knew his address. If I had known his address.

TABLE 6

Simple sentences

Complex sentences

Success attend! May success attend you! If only he were here! Confound this files! Be it so!

Conditional sentences I would stay a bit longer if I I’d got plenty of time. Adverbial clauses Of purpose (that, so that, in order that) She opens the window so that she may (might) get a breath of fresh air. Of concession (though, although, however, no matter, whatever, whoever) However tired he may (might) be he will to the concert. Of time and place (whenever and wherever) Whenever you may (might) come, you are welcome. Of comparison (as if, as though) She spoke about him as if she knew him. Predicative clauses As if, as though with the verbs to be, to feel, to look, to seem. I feel as if we were back seven years, Jon (Galsworthy). After nouns wish, suggestion, aim, idea. My wish was that you should come. Subject clauses. It is (was) necessary, important, right, requested, recommended, better (best),desirable, of vital importance + that we should do the work. Object clauses. After wish I wish I were young again. I wish she felt as I do. I wish I had done. After lest (with should, may, might) She fears (feared) lest she should be blamed. After the verbs to order, to suggest, is used to express an emotional attitude of the speaker to real facts. It is strange I should never have heard him mention your name. Why should you and I talk about it? I am sorry you should take such needless trouble.

The paradigmatic is generally represented as a vertical axis is thought of as what could be substituted in the place of the current term, in its current location. In other words, what does the particular term used connote? The paradigmatic refers to the rules and principles of possible combination around substitute terms.

The syntagmatic is generally understood to be a horizontal axis, and this refers to the rules of combination and organisation that provide the sequential order of a sentence or utterance.

The paradigmatic and syntagmatic work in combination, so that a sentence has a particular syntagmatic form which determines what can go where, while the paradigmatic provides or produces the possibilities for various particular meanings and substitutions in each position of the syntagmatic chain. For example, English has a reasonably strict formal grammar, and this provides, in written and spoken English (though each has a slightly different grammar) a formal syntagmatic structure. However, what can be placed within each part of this formal syntagmatic chain can be chosen from a large (though finite) set of terms, and it is this combination that allows us to generate an infinite number of singular statements and utterances.

In addition, the paradigmatic demonstrates that what a word or phrase means is determined as much by what is not written or said, as it is by what appears. For example, in the sentence "my love is a rose" the last term "rose" gains its meaning by virtue of all those things that could have been said there and are not. Paradigmatically, this is obviously a very large set ("person, man, woman, dog, computer, . . ." basically any common noun would do), but of that actually selected ("rose") this is understood to gain resonance from all those terms that are suggested by and around the term used and of that set of ideas the particular term gains its meaning (and authority) by virtue of this set. In other words "rose" gains its meaning because it is not "person, man, woman, dog, computer, . . ." but also because "rose" suggests red, thorns, poetry, nature.