1. History of knowledge development about biosphere chemical composition and scale of its transformations

History of concept development about biosphere geochemistry is closely connected with the name of Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadskiy who created the theory of biosphere and first states the problem of special studying the living matter playing a crucial role in redistribution of chemical elements in various environments with which it contacts. The ideas of studying living organisms’ activity from geologic point of view appeared in V.I. Vernadskiy’s mind in his student’s years, when he took part in the field expeditions of his teacher – soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev. Then they were developed in the years of his life in Ukraine (1916 - 1920) and in France (1922 - 1926). Beginning from 1921 Vladimir Ivanovich arranged the systematic research in biogeochemistry (Vernadskiy, 1921; 1922; 1926; 1930; 1939 and others). The works dealing with this question were continued by his disciples А.P. Vinogradov, V.V. Kovalskiy and others. By that time, according to А.P. Vinogradov’s achieve in the laboratory of BIOGEL GEOHI RAS, the investigations of element content in living organisms started to develop in some countries. Thus, as soon as the beginning of the 20-th century Italian and German scientists revealed the relative content amount of some rare earth elements (according to BIOGEL achieve: Schiaparelli, 1880; Yunk, 1926), bromine (according to BIOGEL achieve: Paderi, 1898, Yustus, 1907) and others. However, they were of not systematical nature. Fundamental research of living organisms’ role in concentration of chemical elements were presented in V.I. Vernadskiy’s book «Biosphere» (Vernadskiy, 1926), one of the most famous publications of the great Russian scientist translated into almost all languages of the world.

In his logical theory about biosphere as an inhabited geospheric shell V.I. Vernadskiy paid great attention to the geochemical processes with participation of living matter (LM). «Living matter is an absolutely special chemical sphere of the Earth’s crust... In living matter, in its each cell … there is a whirlwind of chemical elements», wrote V.I. Vernadskiy (1994, p. 168).

His ideas were developed in А.P. Vinogradov’s research (1932; 1935, 1938 and others). Thus, his investigation of living matter geochemistry is of fundamental importance and still remains topical for content analysis of definite element spectrum (Vinogradov, 1932). In his monograph «Chemical element composition of marine organisms» a number of ideas about the regularities of biogeochemistry as a science were first formulated and they are still rather timely (Vinogradov, 1935). This research was carried out in the first in the world the Biogeochemical laboratory established in 1928 on the basis of small Department of living matter in Committee of Research in Natural Production Force of Russia established by V.I. Vernadskiy in 1926, that still functions successfully (head of the laboratory – Prof., Doctor of Biol. Science, Yermakov V.V.). Just from that time the history of the first in the world systematic, fundamental studies of living matter has started. Theoretical bases developed in the Biogeochemical laboratory in future crystallized in powerful trends and schools. For instance, the uranium research was performed in the lab, there were questions of isotope geochemistry under study, microbiological investigations were performed, and the problems of analytical research methods for low element concentrations were solved as well as a number of other studies. The former question was paid much attention by all scientists, as the content of high element concentration in living matter is characterized by small values. It was this question with which the significant problems of chemical element composition are connected. Developing analytical methods we are advancing in awareness of regularities in element composition formation of all living matter. V.I. Vernadskiy wrote in his letter: «Those new chemical disciplines ultimately developed in the 20-th century, such as geochemistry and biogeochemistry are based on analytical chemistry – the scientific sphere of high practical and theoretical significance» (V.I. Vernadskiy, по Vinogradovа, 2007, P.85). It was due to the fact that the laboratory «BIOGEL» was a competent center of living matter chemistry and at that time it became possible to develop knowledge in the sphere of living matter geochemistry and even at that period to reveal some regularities in formation of element composition and species evolution. In the 1930’s А.P. Vinogradov put forward the idea of biogeochemical provinces (Vinogradov, 1938), that allowed for further practical solutions in problems of goiter endemia, Kashin-Bek disease and a number of other animal and human pathologies prevention.

Simultaneously the study in element accumulation in animal and human tissues was actively carried out aboard, namely by German and other scientists (Damiens, 1921; Burkser e.а., 1931; Hoffman, 1942; Warren e.a., 1949; and others).

Since the end of the 30’s in the research of microelement physiological role in the life of a man had been engaged V.V. Kovalskiy, who following V.I. Vernadskiy and А.P. Vinogradov became a director of the Biogeochemical laboratory (since 1954) (Vinogradov, 2007). It was this laboratory where the ideas of living organisms’ homeostasis with the environmental chemical composition appeared and developed (Kovalskiy, 1974; et al) and where the biogeochemical map of the Soviet Union was constructed. In this map the biogeochemical provinces with excess and lack of elements were shown. On the basis of the map in terms of the known data one could predict these or those diseases.

Since 1945 the Biogeochemical lab under the supervision of А.P. Vinogradov has held the meeting at which different problems of living matter microelements were discussed. In 1950 on the basis of GEOHI named after V.I. Vernadskiy of the USSR AS and the International Dairy Research Institute under the guidance of the Chemical and Biological Departments of the USSR AS and All-Union Agricultural Academy of Science named after V.I. Lenin held the first All-Union Microelement Conference.

By the 50’s of the last century the main trends in microelement research and their role in different fields of biology and medicine had outlined. The results of these works are of fundamental character and basic for modern performance of functional-diagnostic studies of human and animals (Kovalskiy, 1982; 2009). Simultaneously the laboratory has developed the biogeochemical method of ore field exploration (D.P. Malyuga, 1964; Nesvetailova, 1970; and others), studied chemical composition of fossil organic matter of ancient organisms (S.М. Manskaya, 1964; Т.V. Drozdova, 1964, and others) and a number of other trends (Kovalskiy, 2006).

Ya.V. Peive, V.V. Kovalskiy, P.А. Vlasyuk, F.Ya. Berenshtein’s scientific schools contributed to the wide application of microelements in crop production, zooculture, and veterinary medicine as well as medicine. The 50-60’s of the 20-th century became the period of “golden age” in research of element content in living matter composition. There were conferences, meetings on these topics in different cities and countries (Baku, 1958; Riga, 1959; Kiev, 1965; Ulan-Ude, December,1960; Krasnoyarsk, November-December,1964; Omsk, July, 1969; and other). Particularly numerous were studies in composition of different plant species, element migration from soil to plants, the role of chemical elements in functions of living organism, peculiarities of element concentration in different organs and tissues (standard and pathology) (Vinogradov, 1954, 1957; Brieger e.a., 1959; Schreder, Balassa, 1961; Underwood, 1962; Warren, 1959; Warren e.a., 1967; Babenko, 1971; others).

Under the supervision of V.V. Kovalskiy in the Biogeochemical laboratory the large-scale works on determination of the element role in living organism were arranged, the new biogeochemical trends – geochemical ecology and the theory of biogeochemical biosphere zoning were developed. As early as in the 80’s these factors predetermined the development of the theory of human microelementosis that in 1983 was generalized and classified (Avtsyn et al, 1983, 1991). The theory of biogeochemical provinces and numerous scientific works in the field of living organism chemical composition made possible the development of preventive measures to prevent population diseases.

Similar works have been performed abroard (Italy, January, 1993; Greece, October, 1997; France, May, 1999; Sweden, September, 2000; Germany, Arbeitstagung, 1996 – 2002; and others). In recent years they were systematically performed by Prof. M. Anke («Mengen …», 1999, 2000, 2001) in Germany, Sophie and Serge Ermidot-Polet in Greece (2005, 2007, 2009), Prof. М.S. Panin in Kazakhstan (Semipalatinsk city, 2002 – 2009).

Today the information on living matter composition is available in all geochemical reference books and encyclopedias. The most complete original collections of these data are the generalizations of H.J.M. Bowen (1966), Боуэн, Гиббонс (1968), А.П. Vinogradov (1932, 1935), V.V. Kovalskiy (1974), В.В. Yermakov (2009), А.А. Kist (1987), А. Kabata-Pendias and H. Pendias (1989, 2007), V.B. Il’in (1985, 1991), V.V. Ivanov (1997), S.М. Tkalich (1959), G.N. Saenko (1992), N.F. and М.А. Glazovskiy (1982, 1988) as well as А.P. Avtsyn (1991), D.P. Malyuga (1963), J.A.C. Fortesque (1985), J. Emslie (1993) and a number of other researches including in definite types, organs, and tissues (blood, hair etc.) (Iyengar et al. (1978); Ryabukin (1978), Bucku, Parr (1982), Bowen (1979), Underwood (1977) and others), proceedings of Commissions («Human…», 1977; «Health risks…», 1988 and others).

Characteristic feature of modern investigations is their interdisciplinary approach to the themes of research in content, distribution, role of elements in living matter. There is a tendency of knowledge synthesis accumulated in different scientific fields. For example, at the seminar on environmental geoecology in Sweden (2000) the problem of new discipline development called «Medical geology» was actively discussed, the necessity of its establishment results from the huge role that the environment plays in chemical composition formation of living organisms and development of human pathology. In the course of this discipline the study of different territories with respect to geologic factor influence on the human health has been performed («Umveltmedizin…», 1999; «Essential…», 2005; Selinus et.al, 2010). Investigation of effects on living organisms is carried out at the interface of different scientific branches of environmental study. Therefore it is this place where mutual understanding among the specialists of various profiles and coordination of different conceptual bases is necessary (Emmanuel, 1982; Saet et al, 1990; Agadzhanyan, 2006 and others).

Importance of interdisciplinary approach to the problem of interaction in the living organism – environment system consists also in the fact that the degree of anthropogenic load is increasing with human society development. In this case the scale of adverse effect of toxic discharges and industrial wastes in the environment and their long-term accumulation has reached such critical values that one could speak about «chronic biogeoplanetary pathology» (Yu.P. Gichev, 2000, p.13). Along with biogeochemical endemias of natural origin the development of endemic diseases as a response to anormal environmental composition changed by human activity is also possible (Revich et al., 2003, 2004; Skalniy, 2000, 2004; Babenko, 2001 and others). The most complete interconnection between many diseases including those of endemic origin and human environment is described by the new scientific direction gaining widespread acceptance in recent time due to the works of V.L. Suslikov – geochemical ecology of diseases (Suslikov, 1999, 2000-2003).

There appear some elements in the environment absent before (Pu, Am and others) with increasing concentration and degree of element dispersion. In connection with study of human impact degree on the environment it was stated that peculiarities of living organism development and its chemical composition are strongly influenced by the processes of anthropogenic (technogenic) nature including electromagnetic rays (Plekhanov, 1996, and others), radioactive and chemical components (Krivolutskiy, 1971, 1984; Rikhvanov, 1997, 2009 and others.). Anthropogenic pollution according to V.S. Bezel’s definition (2006) is a man-induced unfavorable modification of natural environment having transformations of matter, energy fluxes and radiation background as consequences and developing in the form of biota changes. In the opinion of the book authors «Ecogeochemistry of Western Siberia» these transformations threaten not only by irreversible changes in main components of life-supporting systems and even their complete destruction but also development of new, unknown before, hostile to current biological communities («Ecogeochemistry…», 1996). In modern conditions characterized by significant anthropogenic pressure it is necessary to apply best efforts to preserve life on the Earth. For this purpose one should perform quantitative estimation of current geochemical background and its changes, to reveal the regularities in impact of environment components on biota, to detect the background indicators at which adaptation processes in organism and over-organism systems are possible, to state indicators of environmental ill-being for functions of living organisms including the man.

The scale of transformations in biosphere geochemical composition is huge. It is conditioned by numerous factors including growing intensity of fossil fuel extraction and rapid development of engineering progress. Intensive research in influence of natural and anthropogenic processes on global environmental changes is typical for almost all developed countries. It is carried out in the course of special international and national programs as well as numerous ecological programs («Global…», 2001 and others). The necessity of studying and understanding these processes to predict and minimize their negative impact for hmankind in general has become obvious. A number of authors studying global processes in biosphere point out that reaction of living systems are not always direct and predictable. Thus, research in periodical changes of global character (Dobretsov, Chumakov, 2001) permitted to state that biotic components of biosphere «…due to their homeostasis, behavior and evolutionary flexibility, resistivity of ecosystems developed by them, react to climate changes not so simply and predictably as inorganic elements» (p. 21). This property of living organism to react ambiguously on the basis of organism adaptation properties developed in the evolutionary process and adaptation to habitat conditions, manifests also at examining changes in element composition of definite organisms. Thus, Hopkin and Martin (Hopkin, Martin, 1983) showed that predaceous millipedes (Chilopoda), caught in the sites with elevated concentration of zinc, cadmium, lead, copper demonstrate high resistivity to the provocative action of toxic factors as compared to the animals of reference sites (Bezel, Panin, 2008). There are a lot of other examples (Nekrasova, 1989; Zhuikova, 2001 et al.). An ambiguous resistivity character can be explained by both the properties of organism itself and specific factors due to which it develops. In V.N. Pozolotina’s work with co-authors (2009), it is noted in particular that biological effects of chronic radioactivity impact occur in subsequent generations even after removing the stress whereas heavy metals do not influence generations significantly.

Besides, living system reaction depends on the level of their organization level. For instance, L.P. Braginskiy (1984) absolutely reasonably pointed out that «..if for a single individual a death means most horrible defeat in the struggle for survival, for a population mass deaths is only elimination of less adopted species and some reorganization of biologic system providing its preservation» (Bezel, 2006, p. 23). Speaking about cellular-tissue organization level it should be mentioned that a definite mature cell lives and functions even after relatively high doses of toxicants.

However, when we deal with human survivability and in definite case – the life and the death of a separate man, we cannot consider the problem abstractly and generally. No matter how the anthropocentric approach is criticized, it is important for us to protect human life and health first of all. How deep are the changes taking place in biosphere, and how it will reflect on the human health state – these are urgent problems that humankind has to face. Unfortunately, we do not have enough data to estimate the average indicators of human organism element composition, though this problem was stated by V.I. Vernadskiy as early as at the beginning of the last century. He wrote: «The key disadvantage is complete absence of full element analysis of living substance… We do not have them even, for instance, such an organism as the man, whose organism has been under study for centuries…» (Vernadskiy, 1960, p.148). At the same time the question of environmental geochemical transformation has been investigated intensively enough. Global consequences of technogenesis (Fersman, 1937) are widely known, the include greenhouse effect, desertification of arid zones, pollution and regulation of surface runoffs, acid rains, and some other global problems. Mankind has faced the problem of global anthropogenic-geochemical dissipation (Yanshin et al., 1998). Anthropogenic dissipation of elements is a regular effect of industrial technogenesis. The global scale of this process was first spoken of at the end of the 70’s in the last century. It was determined that the real threat for mankind survival and protection of the Earth’s biosphere poses the anthropogenic dissipation of such biota toxic elements as arsenic, mercury, chromium, lead, vanadium, cadmium etc. (Bockris, 1977; Tyutyunova et al, 2001; others).

Modern analytical achievements allow for observation of changes in geochemical background of various spheres of our planet including biosphere, living shell penetrating into all other ones. Thus, according to V.N. Bashkin’s data (2004) In Europe of 1996 the general natural mercury emission into the atmosphere amounted 219 tons a year, whereas the direct anthropogenic one – 326 ton/year. Table 2.1 demonstrates the data on global emission of some elements conditioned by biosphere transformations in the conditions of technogenesis (Yermakov, 2003). Obviously, the technogenic element emission exceeds significantly the natural one. The author noted that «at present anthropogenic factors are so enormous and momentary that pose an urgent problem of local and global evaluation of current technogenic processes and organisms’ protection from their harmful impact» (Yermakov, 2003, p.6).

The scales of environmental – geochemical transformations in biosphere are spoken about in details V.А. Alexeenko’s works (2000, 2006). The author classifies «…such geochemical changes in biosphere that have an impact on living matter and definite organisms» (Alexeenko, 2006, p.386). He presented the three basic causes for this impact: 1) changing content of an element (its distribution); 2) changes in its spreading (dissipation) and 3) change in proportions between main types of chemical element occurrence and appearance of new forms.

The changes are of both global and local character connected with the activity, as a rule, of one or several industrial objects the study of which deals with applied problems.

Table 2.1.