ENGLISH_LEXICOLOGY

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

Prof.' Aznaurova' E.' S.' points' out' that' stylistic' synonyms' carry' emotional' evaluative' information.' Synonyms' are' distributionally' different' words.' Ex.' “too”,' “also”' “as' well”' are' synonyms.' They' always' occur' in' different' surroundings.' The' synonyms' differ' in' their' collectability.'Ex.'We'compare'the'collectability'of'synonyms'“to'book”'and'“to'buy”.'

The'main'sources'of'synonyms'are:'

1)'borrowings:'to'ask'X'to'question:'(F)'X'to'interrogate.'(L)'to'begin'(A,'S)'X'to'commence'

(F)'Xto'initiate'(L'Xrise'(F)'X'ascend'(L);'

2)'The'formation'of'verb+'adverb'(V+adv)'combinations'like'“have'a'smoke”.'to'rest'X'to'

have'a'rest,'to'swimX'to'have'a'swim,'to'smoke'X'to'have'a'smoke;''

3)shortening:'vacation'X'vac,'doctor'Xdoc,'sister'Xsis;''

4)'conversion:'laughter'Xlaugh,''

5)' many' set' expressions' consisting' of' a' verb' with' a' postpositive' element' form' synonyms’.'to'choose'X'to'pick'out,'to'continue'to'go'on,'to'return'X'to'bring'back.'

6)' euphemisms,' i.e.' words' which' are' used' instead' of' unpleasant' words:' ex:' drunkX merry,'lodgerXpaying'guest,'to'die'X'to'go'away,'commandment'X'command.'

7)'slang.'i.e.'emotionally'colored'words,'which'are'the'secondary'names'of'objects.'

Ex.' сокрушатель,' X' crusher' (полицейский),' тюрма' X' can' (дословно' консервная' банка),'убитьX'to'bump'off'X'(дословно'пристукнуть),'казнить'X'to'fry'X'(дословно'зажарить),' голова'X'bean'(дословно'боб)'или'mug'(дословно'кружка).'

Antonyms' are' words,' which' belong' to' the' same' part' of' speech' and' have' contrary' meanings.'Ex.'kind'X'cruel,'good'X'bad,'big'X'small,'little'X'much.'

Antonyms'may'be'divided'into:''

1)'root'antonyms:'ex.'good'X'bad,'beautiful'X'ugly,'kind'X'cruel,'old'X'young.'

2)'Derivational'antonyms.'These'antonyms'are'formed'by'affixes.'Ex.'kind'X'unkind,'to'

like'X'dislike,'possible'X'impossible,'regular,'irregular.'Antonyms'are'not'always'interchangeable'

in'certain'contexts.'Ex.'“rich'voice”'cannot'be'changed'into'“poor'voice”.'The'opposite'of'a'short'

person'is'a'tall'person.'A'short'thing'X'long'thing'an'old'book'X'a'new'book,'an'old'man'X'a'young'

man,'a'thin'man'X'a'fat'man,'a'thin'book'X'a'thick'book.'

Antonyms'may'be'found'among'qualitative'adjectives'as:'good'X'bad,'deep'X'shallow,'

nouns'as:'light'X'darkness;'verb'as'“to'give”'and'“to'take”;'adverbs'as'quickly'X'slowly,'early'X'late.'

Many'antonyms'are'explained'by'means'of'the'negative'particle'“not”.'Ex.'clean'X'not'

dirty,'shallow'onto'deep.'Antonyms'form'pairs,'not'groups'like'synonyms:'bad'X'good,'big'X'little,'

alike'X'different,'old'X'new.'

Polysemantic'words'may'have'antonyms'in'some'of'their'meanings'and'none'in'the' others.' Ex.' when' the' word' “criticism' means' “blame”' its' antonym' is' “praise”,' when' it' means' “рецензия”'it'has'no'antonym.'

The'majority'of'linguists'nowadays'agree'that'the'vocabulary'should'be'studied'as'a' system.'We'must'study'interrelated'systems.'For'different'purposes'of'study'different'types'of' grouping'of'words'may'be'effective.'

Words'joined'together'by'one'common'semantic'component'form'semantic'fields.'Ex.'

the'semantic'field'of'time.'

The'German'linguist'Jost'Trier'shows'that'its'neighbors'determine'the'significance'of'

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

each'unit'in'the'semantic'field.''

A.'Shaikevitch'says'that'semantically'related'words'must'occur'near'one'another'in'the'

text.'If'the'words'often'occur'in'the'text'together'they'must'be'semantically'related'and'they'

form'a'semantic'field.'

Ex.'faint,'feeble'weary'sick,'tedious'and'healthy'form'one'semantic'field.'Face,'head,' arm,'hand,'foot'etc'make'up'the'semantic'field'with'the'notion'of'body.'

Neologism'is'any'word,'which'is'formed'according'to'the'productive'structural'patterns'

or'borrowed'from'another'language'and'felt'by'the'speakers'as'something'new.'So'neologisms'

are'newly'coined'words'or'phrase'or'a'new'meaning'for'an'existing'word'or'a'word'borrowed'

from'another'language.'As'a'result'of'the'development'of'science'and'industry'many'new'words'

are'appeared'in'the'language.'' Ex.'isotope,'tapeXrecoder,'supermarket,'VXday'(Victory'day).''

The'research'of'cosmic'space'by'the'Soviet'people'gave'birth'to'new'words:'sputnik,'

spaceXrocket,'and'spaceXship.'

Neologisms'may'be'divided'into:'

1)' root' words:' Ex.' jeep' X' a' small' light' motor' vehicle,' zebra' X' street' crossing' place,' sputnik,'lunic'etc;'

2)'derived'words:'Ex.'collaborationist'X'one'who'in'occupied'territory'works'helpfully' with'the'enemy,'to'accessorize'X'to'provide'with'dress'accessories;'

3)'compound:'Ex.'space'X'rocket,'air'X'drop,'microfilm'reader.'New'words'are'as'a'rule'

monosemantic.'Terms,'used'in'various'fields'of'science'and'technique'make'the'greater'part'of'

neologisms.'New'words'belong'only'to'the'notional'parts'of'speech:'to'nouns,'verbs,'adjectives'

etc.'

Neologisms'are'mainly'formed'by:'' 1)'word'formation'(mainly'productive'type).'

Ex.'Xgen,'Xoven:'carinogen'(biological'term),Xices:'psycholinguistics,'electronics,'sputnik'X' to'sputnik'(conversion),' Xnik:'filmnik,'folknik.'

2)'semantic'extension:'heel'X'a'tractor'(old'meaning:'heel'X'the'back'part'of'foot);'to' screen'X' to' classify,' to' select' methodically' (old' meaning' was'X' to' separate' coal' into' different' sizes);'

3)'borrowing:'telecast,'(Greek),'sputnik,'lunnik,'udarnik'(Russian).' Words'may'drop'out'as'a'result'of'the'disappearance'of'the'actual'objects'they'denote.'

These'words'are'called'obsolete'words.'

The'disappearance'of'words'may'be'caused'as'a'result'of'influence'of'borrowings.'

Ex.'the'Scandinavian'“take”'and'“die”'ousted'O.'E.'niman'and'Sweden.'

The'French'“army”'and'“place”'replaced'the'O.'E.'here'and'steps.'Words,'which'are'not'

used'generally,'are'called'archaisms.'Archaisms'are'used'in'poetic'vocabulary.' Ex.'Steed'(horse),'slay'(kill),'welkin'(sky).'

Archaisms' should' be' distinguished' from' historical' terms' or' historic,' which' denote' historical'reality'and'commonly'used'in'modern'English.'

Ex.'cannon'X'ball,'chain'mail,'lance,'archer,'baldric'(belt'for'a'sword).' Speech'also'expresses'the'speakers’'attitude'to'what'he'is'talking'about.'The'speaker'

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

may'wish'to'warn,'to'influence'people,'to'express'his'approval'or'disapproval.'Words'expressing' emotion' are' called' emotionally' colored' words.' Diminutive' and' derogatory' affixes' play' an' important'role'in'forming'emotionally'colored'words.'

Ex.'daddy,'kiddykins,'babykins,'oldie,'blackie.''

It' is' very' interesting' that' many' personal' nouns' formed' by' the' composition' from' complete'sentences'or'phrases'in'most'cases'are'derogatory:'

Ex.' also' X' run' X' скакун,' непосредственность' neverX' sayX' die' X' несдающиеся,' неприклонный' stick' Xin' X' the' mud' Xотсталый' человек,' растяпа,' dieX' hard' Xкрайний' консерватор,' живучий.' There' are' nouns' formed' by' conversion' which' are' used' emotionally' colored:'a'bare'X'скучный'человек'a'washout'X'пропавший'человек.'There'are'some'words,' which'indicate'the'special'importance'of'the'thing'expressed.'They'are'called'intensifiers.'Ex.' evens,' ever,' all,' so,' awfully,' tremendously,' wonderfully,' terribly.' awfully' glad,' terribly' important...''

It'should'be'pointed'out'that'among'the'emotionally'colored'words'we'can'find'words,'

which'express'evaluation,'judgment.'They'are'called'evaluation'words.'Mostly'names'of'animals'

have'a'strong'evaluator'force.'

Ex.' “Silly' ass”' said' Dick.' “He’s' jealous' because' he' didn’t' win' a' priz”,' cat' twitted' X' мелочный,' dirty' dog' X' грязный' подлец,' colt' X' a' young' male' horse' used' for' a' young' unexperienced' person,' pup' X' щенок.' They' have' negative' evaluation.' But' in' English' we' have' words,'which'have'positive'evaluation,'ex.'bunny'X'кролик'(ласк),'bunting'X'птичка'(ласк).'The' English'language'we'can'find'a'lot'of'vulgar'words,'which'are'used,'in'emotional'speech:'ex.' Damn!'Alas!'

One'and'same'word'may'have'different'evaluation'when'it'is'used'with'words'denoting'

different'sex.' He'is'a'bull'(it'has'a'positive'evaluation)'She'is'a'bull'(it'has'a'negative'evaluation).'On'

different'occasion'and'situations'the'speaker'uses'different'words,'choose'different'words'in' different'spheres'of'communication.'There'are'some'words'which'are'used'in'lecture,'in'a'poem' or'when'speaking'to'a'child,'an'official'person'etc.'They'are'very'highly'frequent'words.'These' words'are'called'stylistically'neutral'words.'Ex.'evening,'man,'table,'horse,'read,'write,'speak,' beautiful,'nice'etc.'But'we'have'a'lot'of'words,'which'cannot'be'used'in'any'situation'or'we' speak'to'any'person.'They'are'called'stylistically'marked'words.'Ex.'the'English'nouns'“horse”,' “steed”,' “geeXgee”' has' the' same' meaning,' they' all' refer' to' the' same' animal' but' they' are' stylistically'different.'“'Horse”'is'stylistically'neutral'and'may'be'used'in'any'situation.'“Steed”' belongs'to'poetic'vocabulary.'It'has'a'lofty'meaning.'“GeeXgee”'X'is'a'nursery'word'neutral'in'a' child’s'speech.'And'it'is'not'used'in'adult'conversation.'So'stylistically'colored'words'are'suitable' only' on' certain' definite' occasions' in' specific' conditions' of' communication.' Each' stylistically' colored'word'has'a'neutral'synonym:'Ex.'steed'X'horse,'ire'X'anger,'sustain'X'suffer,'obtain'X'get,' accommodation'X'room,'woe'X'sorrow,'fair'X'beautiful,'slay'X'kill.'

Among'the'stylistically'X'colored'words'we'can'find:'

Slang'X'words.'They'are'expressive,'mostly'ironical'words.'They'serve'to'create'fresh' names'for'some'things.'They'sound'somewhat'vulgar,'harsh,'mockingly,'contemptuously.'

Ex.' The' word' “money”' has' the' following' slang' words' as:' beans,' brass,' dibs,' dough,'

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

chink,'oof,'and'wads.'

The'slang'synonyms'for'word'“head”'are:'attic,'brain'X'pan,'hat,'peg,'nut,'and'upper' storey.'The'slang'synonyms'for'the'adjective'“drunk”'are:'boozy,'cockXeyed,'high,'soaked,'tight.'

'

THE'ENGLISH'WORD'X'STOCK.''

1.'Etymological'survey'of'the'English'wordXstock.''

2.'The'discussion'of'the'role'of'words'in'the'language.''

3.'The'native'words'and'their'properties.''

4.'Borrowed'words'and'their'properties.''

5.'Linguistic'and'extraXlinguistic'factors'to'the'borrowing'of'words.'

'

Etymologically' the' vocabulary' of' the' English' language' consists' of' two' groups' X' the' native' words' and' the' borrowed' words.' The' etymological' linguistic' analysis' showed' that' the' borrowed'stock'of'words'is'larger'than'the'native'stock'of'words.'In'fact'native'words'comprise' only'30%'of'the'total'number'of'words'in'the'English'vocabulary.'A'native'word'is'a'word,'which' belongs'to'the'original'English'stock,'which'belongs'to'AngloXSaxon'origin.'To'the'native'words' we'include'words'from'Common'Germanic'language'and'from'IndoXEuropean'stock.'Borrowed' words' are' words' taken' over' from' other' languages.' Many' linguists' consider' foreign' influence' plays' the' most' important' role' in' the' history' of' the' English' language.' But' the' grammar' and' phonetic' system' are' very' stable' (unchangeable)' and' are' not' often' influenced' by' other' languages.'Besides'when'we'speak'about'the'role'of'native'and'borrowed'words'in'the'English' language' we' must' not' take' into' consideration' only' the' number' of' them' but' their' semantic,' stylistic'character,'their'word'building'ability,'frequency'value,'collectability'(valiancy)'and'the' productivity'of'their'word'building'patterns.'If'we'approach'to'the'study'of'the'role'of'native' borrowed'words'from'this'point'of'view'we'see,'though'the'native'words'are'not'numerous' they'play'an'important'role'in'the'English'language.'They'have'high'frequency'value,'great'wordX forming'power,'wide'collectability,'many'meanings'and'they'are'stylistically'neutral.'Almost'all' words' of' native' origin' belong' to' very' important' semantic' groups.' They' include' most' of' the' auxiliary'and'model'verbs:'shall,'will,'should,'must,'can,'may;'pronouns:'I,'he,'my,'your,'his,'who,' whose;' prepositions:' in,' out,' on,' under,' for,' of;' numerals:' one' two' three,' four,' five,' six,' etc;' conjunctions:'and,'but,'till,'as'etc;'words'denoting'parts'of'body:'head,'hand,'arm,'back,'foot,' eye' etc;' members' of' a' family:' father,' mother,' brother,' son,' wife;' natural' phenomena' and' planets:' snow,' rain,' wind,' sun,' moon,' animals:' horse,' cow,' sheep,' cat;' common' actions:' do,' make,'go,'come,'hear,'see,'eat,'speak,'talk'etc.'All'these'words'are'very'frequent'words;'we'use' them'every'day'in'our'speech.'Many'words'of'native'origin'possess'large'clusters'of'derived'and' compound'words'in'the'presentXday'language.'

Ex.'help'X'helper,'helpful,'helpfully,'helpfulness,'helping,'helpingly,'helpable,'helpable,'

helped,'unsellable'etc.'

Such'affixes'of'native'origin'as'er,'Xness,'Xish,'Xed,'un,'Xmis,'Xdom,'Xhood,'X'ly,'Xover,'Xout,'

Xunder,'X'are'of'native'origin.'

We'see'that'the'role'of'native'words'in'the'language'is'great.'Many'authors'use'native' words' more' than' foreign' ones.' Thus' Shakespeare' used' 90%' native' words' and' 10%' foreign'

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

words.'Swift'used'75%'native'words.'

Borrowed' words' have' been' called' “the' milestones' of' philology”' X'said' O.' Jeperson'X' because'they'permit'us'(show'us)'to'fix'approximate'the'dates'of'linguistic'changes.'They'show' us'the'course'of'civilization'and'give'us'information'of'the'nations”.'

The' wellXknown' linguist' Shuchard' said,' “No' language' is' entirely' pure”,' that' all' the' languages'are'mixed.'Borrowed'words'enter'the'language'as'a'result'of'influence'of'two'main' causes'or'factors;'linguistic'and'extraXlinguistic.'Economic,'cultural,'industrial,'political'relations' of'speakers'of'the'language'with'other'countries'refer'to'extraXlinguistic'factors.'The'historical' development'of'England'also'influenced'the'language.'Due'to'the'great'influence'of'the'Roman' civilization'Latin'was'for'a'long'time'used'in'England'as'the'language'of'learning'and'religion.'Old' Norse' of' the' Scandinavian' tribes' was' the' language' of' the' conquerors' (9X' 10X' 11' centuries).' French'(Norman'dialect)'was'the'language'of'the'other'conquerors'that'brought'with'them'a'lot' new' notions' of' a' higher' social' system,' developed' feudalism.' It' was' the' language' of' upper' classes,' of' official' documents' and' school' (11X14' centuries).' These' factors' are' extraXlinguistic' ones.'

The' absence' of' equivalent' words' in' the' language' to' express' new' subjects' or' phenomena' makes' people' to' borrow' words.' Ex.' the' words' football,' volleyball,' michman' in' Russian;' to' economize' the' linguistic' means,' i.e.' to' use' a' foreign' word' instead' of' long' native' expressions'and'others'are'called'linguistic'causes.'

The'closer'the'two'interacting'languages'are'in'structure'the'easier'it'is'for'words'of'one'

language'to'penetrate'into'the'other.'The'fact'that'Scandinavian'borrowings'have'penetrated'

into'such'grammatical'classes'as'prepositions'and'pronouns'(they,'them,'their,'both,'same,'till)'

can'only'be'attributed'to'a'similarity'in'the'structure'of'the'two'languages.'

Borrowings'enter'the'language'in'two'ways:'though'oral'speech'(by'immediate'contact' between' the' people)' and' though' written' speech' (by' indirect' contact' though' books).' Words' borrowed'orally'(inch,'mill,'street,'map)'are'usually'short'and'they'undergo'more'change'in'the' act'of'adopter.'Written'borrowings'(communiqué,'belles'X'letters'naïveté,'psychology,'pagoda' etc)'are'often'rather'long'and'they'are'unknown'to'many'people,'speaking'English.'

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

'

LECTURE$1212.$ $ $ PHRASEOLOGY.$

1.'The'subject'matter'of'phraseology.''

2.'The'classification'of'phraseological'units.''

3.' The' point' of' view' about' stability,'idiomatic' and' the' equivalency' of' phraseological' units'to'words.''

4.'The'history'of'phraseological'units.''

5.'The'synonymy,'polysemy'of'phraseological'units.'

'

Functionally'and'semantically'inseparable'units'are'usually'called'phraseological'units.' Phraseological' units' cannot' be' freely' made' up' in' speech' but' are' reproduced' as'readyXmade' units.'The'lexical'components'in'phraseological'units'are'stable'and'they'are'nonXmotivated'i.e.' its'meaning'cannot'be'deduced'from'the'meaning'of'its'components'and'they'do'not'allow'their' lexical' components' to' be' changed' or' substituted.' In' phraseological' units' the' individual' components'do'not'seem'to'possess'any'lexical'meaning'outside'the'word'group.''Ex.'red'tape' (bureaucratic'methods),'to'get'rid'of;'to'take'place;'to'lead'the'dance;'to'take'care.'

A.'V.'Koonin'thinks'that'phraseology'must'be'an'independent'linguistic'science'and'not'

a'part'of'lexicology.'His'classification'of'phraseological'units'is'based'on'the'functions'of'them'in'

speech.'They'are:'nominating,'interjectional'and'communicative.'

V.' V.' Vinogradov' classified' phraseological' units' into' three' groups' taking' into' consideration'their'motivation.'They'are:'

1)'phraseological'fusions;'they'are'such'units'which'are'completely'non'motivated'word'

groups;'Ex.'to'kick'the'bucket'to'get'one’s'goat,'show'the'white'feather.'

In'these'word'groups'the'meaning'of'the'whole'expressions'is'not'derived'from'the' meaning'of'components.'

2)' phraseologycal' units;'the'meaning'of' such'wordXgroups'can'be'perceived'through' the'metaphorical'meaning'of'the'whole'phraseological'unit'or'the'meaning'of'which'may'be' seen'as'a'metaphorical'transference'of'the'meaning'of'the'word'group:'to'show'one’s'teeth,'to' know'the'way'the'wind'blows,'to'stand'to'one’s'guns,'to'take'care'of;'

3)' phraseological' collocations:' They' include' motivated' relatively' stable' word' groups.' They'have'a'certain'degree'of'stability;'ex.'to'take'an'interest,'to'fall'in'love,'to'look'through' one’s'fingers,'meet'the'demand'etc.'

At'present'the'term'“phraseological'unit”'is'usually'used'not'to'all'set'expression'but'

only'to'those,'which'are'completely'or'partially'nonXmotivated.'

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

12!RECOMMENDED LITERATURE.

I. V. Arnold. The English Word. M, 1986. pp. 165-180.

R.S. Ginzburg etal. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. M, 1979.

S.S. Hydekel etal. Reading in Modern English Lexicology. L, 1975. pp. 5680.

J. Buranov, A. Muminov. A Practical Course in English Lexicology. Tashkent, 1990. pp. 121-130.

А.И.Смирницанглийского.Лексикязыкаология.М, 1965.

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

Prof'N.'Amosova'gives'two'categories'of'phraseological'units'depending'on'whether' just'one'component'or'both'are'used'in'phraseologically'bound'meaning.'If'all'the'components' have'idiomatic'meaning'such'phraseological'units'are'called'“idioms”'ex:'to'toe'the'line'(to'do' exactly'as'one'is'told),'a'free'lance'(a'person'who'acts'independently).'If'one'of'the'components' has'bound'specialized'meaning'dependent'on'the'second'component'she'called'“phrasemes”.'

Ex.'dutch'courage'(courage'given'by'drink),'to'bring'to'book'(to'bring'to'justice)'small' years'(in'the'childhood),'small'beers'(weak'beer).'

Stability'of'phraseological'units'is'seen'in'its'disallowance'of'the'substitution'of'word'

groups.'Ex.'“to'shrug'one’s'shoulders”'does'not'allow'substituting'either'“shrug”'or'“shoulder”.'

Idiomatic'of'phraseological'units'is'lack'of'word'groups.'If'a'word'group'does'not'allow'

word'by'word'translation'it'is'called'idiomatic'word'groups.''

Ex.'to'kick'the'bucket'(умереть),'in'the'soup'(в'затруднительном'положении),'under' a'cloud'(в'плохом'настроении).'

Prof.'A.'I.'Smirnitsky'states'that'a'phraseological'unit'may'be'defined'as'specific'word' groups' functioning' as' a' wordXequivalent.' The' phraseological' units' are' single' semantically' inseparable' units.' They' are' used' in' one' function' in' the' sentence' and' belong' to' one' part' of' speech.'

According' to' their' semantic' and' grammatical' inseparability' we' may' classify' the' phraseological'units'into:'noun'equivalents'(heavy'father),'verb'equivalents'(take'place,'break' the'news)'adverb'equivalents'(in'the'long'run,'high'and'low).'Prof.'

A.' Koonin' does' not' support' Smirnitsky’s' point' of' view' on' the' equivalence' of' phraseological' units.' A.' Koonin' points' out' that' the' components' of' phraseological' units' are' mounted'separately'and'therefore'they'can’t'be'used'in'one'function'in'the'sentence.'Ex.'He' gets'rid'of'it.'The'problems'of'equivalency'of'phraseological'units'to'words'demands'further' investigation.'

Among'the'phraseological'units'there'are'the'soXcalled'imperative'phraseological'units.'

Ex.'God'Bless'his'soul!,'Curse'her!'Damn'him!,'Stay'well!,'Go'well!,'Heaven'forbid!,'Lord'love'us!'

etc.'

These' phraseological' units' mostly' denote' the' emotional' and' expressive' state' of' a' person.' Proverbs,' sayings' and' quotations' exist' also' as' readyXmade' units' with' a' specialized' meaning' of' their' own' which' cannot' be' deduced' from' the' meaning' of' their' components.' Therefore'they'may'be'included'in'phraseological'units.''

Ex.'East'or'West'home'is'best,'a'friend'in'need'is'a'friend'indeed.'To'be'or'not'to'be.''

The'history'of'phraseology'is'an'interesting'record'of'the'nation’s'past,'of'its'way'of'life,'

customs'and'traditions.'Many'phraseological'units'are'connected'with'commerce.'

Ex.'to'talk'shops,'to'make'the'best'of'the'bargain,'to'have'all'one’s'goods'in'the'shop' window,'a'drug'on'the'market'(наркотик).''

Many'phraseological'units'are'associated'with'the'sea'(the'waves).''Ex.'all'at'sea,'to'nail' one’s'colors'to'the'mad,'to'sail'under'false'colors.''

Many' phraseological' units' were' borrowed' from' the' Bible,' Ex:' the' root' of' all' evil' X' корень'зла,'любовь'к'деньгам.'Daily'bread'X'хлеб'насущный,'средства'к'существованию.'

There' is' a' subject' of' discussion' among' the' linguists' about' the' state' of' such'

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

combinations'like'“to'give'in”,'“to'make'up”,'to'take'off”,'“to'get'up”,'“to'give'up”'etc;'what'is'

the'nature'of'the'second'element'of'such'combinations?'The'second'element'of'such'units'is'

not'a'word'therefore'they'are'not'phraseological'units.'Phraseological'units,'as'we'know,'consist'

of'words.'The'second'element'is'not'a'morpheme'because'it'is'not'a'part'of'the'word,'they'are'

not'adverbs'because'adverbs'have'definite'lexical'meanings'and'are'used'in'a'certain'function'in'

the'sentence.'But'these'units'(get'up,'give'up'etc)'have'idiomatical'meanings'therefore.'A.'V.' Koonin' calls' such' units' “set' phrases”' which' have' no' phraseological' character.' There' are' synonyms'among'phraseological'units,'Ex:'through'thick'and'thin,'by'hook'or'by'crook,'for'love' or'money'Xво'что'бы'не'стало;'pull'one’s'leg,'to'make'a'fool'of'smb'X'дурачить.''

Some' of' phraseological' units' are' polisemantic' as' “at' large”' X' 1)' на' свободе,' 2)' в' открытом' море,' 3)' без' опредеренной' цели,' 4)' не' попавший' цель,' 5)' свободный,' 6)' в' целом,'7)'вообще,'8)'подобно'etc.'

It' is' the' context' that' realizes' the' meaning' of' a' phraseological' unit' in' each' case.' The' usage'of'phraseological'units'in'speech'is'a'subject'of'research'work'of'many'linguists.'

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

1.'Contrastive'analysis'of'words.''

2.'Componential'analysis'of'words.''

3.'Immediate'Constituents'analysis'of'words.''

4.'Distributional'analysis'of'words.''

5.'Transformational'analysis'of'words.'

'

In'Modern'English'different'methods'are'used'in'lexicological'research:'

1)'Contrastive'analysis;''

2)'Statistical'methods'of'analysis;''

3)'Immediate'constituents'analysis;''

4)'Distributional'analysis;''

5)'Transformational'analysis;''

6)'Componential'analysis'etc.'

'

CONTRASTIVE'ANALYSIS.'Contrastive'analysis'is'used'to'reveal'the'features'of'sameness'

and'differences'in'the'lexical'meaning'and'the'semantic'structure'of'correlated'words'in'both' related' and' nonrelated' languages.' We' must' know' that' the' objective' reality' exists' outside' human'being;'every'language'classifies'reality'in'its'own'way'by'means'of'its'vocabulary'units.'In' English'the'word'“foot”'is'used'to'denote'the'extremity'of'the'leg.'But'in'Russian'there'is'no' exact'equivalent'for'“foot”.'The'words'“нога”'denote'the'whole'leg'including'the'foot.'

'

Classification'of'the'real'world'around'us'is'learned'with'our'first'language'because'we'

are'used'to'the'way'in'which'our'own'language'structures'experience'but'in'the'fact'it'is'highly'

arbitrary.'

Ex.'In'Russian'one'word'is'used'for'the'thing'that'tells'the'time,'часы'but'in'English'we'

use'two'words'“watch”'and'“clock”.'

In'English,'some'kinship'terms'do'not'reflect'the'difference'between'male'and'female:'

cousin.'But'in'Russian:'двоюрный'брат,'двоюрная'сестра.'

In'English:'nephew,'niece;'in'Russian,'двоюрный'брат,'двоюрная'сестра;'in'Russian:'

“художник”,'in'English:'“artist”,'“painter”,'“drawer”.''

The'word'“воспитовать”'can'have'different'equivalents'in'English:'“educate,'to'raise,'to'

bring'up”.''

Anything,' which' can' be' said' in' one' language,' can' be' translated' more' or' less' into' another.'The'correlated'polysemantic'words'of'different'languages'are'not'coextensive.'

Polysemantic'words'may'denote'very'different'types'of'objects'but'they'are'correlated'

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

13!RECOMMENDED LITERATURE.

I. V. Arnold. The English Word. M, 1973. pp.274-290.

R. S. Ginzburg etal. A course in Modern English Lexicology. M, 1979. E. M. Mednikova. Modern English Lexicology. M, 1964.

J. Buranov, A. Muminov. A Practical Course in English Lexicology. M,1979.pp.143-152.

Introductory course to the English Language Lexicology - [ELL] Elementary course.

Conducted: Associate Professor, PhD - Aida Rustamovna. Department of Foreign Languages for Professional Communication;

Department of International Educational Programs for Oversea Students.

in' one' basic' meaning.' Englishman' uses' the' word' “head”' to' denote' the' following:' head' of' person,'head'of'a'match,'head'of'a'bed,'head'of'a'table,'head'of'a'coin,'head'of'an'organization,' head'of'a'cane.'

But'in'Russian'different'words'have'to'be'used:'голова,'изголовье,'сторона,'головка.'

A'Russian'language'learner'having'learnt'first'that'the'word'“head”'is'the'English'word,'

which'denotes'a'part'of'the'body,'he'will'think'that'it'can'be'used'in'all'the'cases'where'the'

Russian'word'“голова”'is'used.'He'will'never'think'of'using'the'word'“head”'in'connection'with'

a'bed'or'a'coin.'

Here' are' some' other' examples' of' difference:' In' Russian:' свекровь,' теща' In' English:' mother'in'law.'

In'a'number'of'cases'the'English'word'“new”'stands'for'“новый”:'новое'платье'(a'new' dress).'Новый'год'(New'year).''

But'there'are'some'cases'where'in'Russian'we'can’t'use'the'word'новый;'new'potatoes'

X'молодая'картошка',new'bread'X'свежый'хлеб.'

One'Russian'word'may'correspond'to'a'number'of'English'words:'тонкая'книга'X'a'thin'

book,'тонкая'ирония'X'subtle'irony,'тонкая'талия'X'slim'waist.'

One' word' in' one' language' may' correspond' to' two' or' more' words' in' different' languages;'карикатура'X'cartoon,'caricature.'

One' and' the' same' Russian' preposition' may' correspond' to' different' prepositions' in' English.'до'5'часов'X'till'5'o’clock'до'войны'X'before'the'war'до'угла'X'to'the'corner'The'wellX known'Russian'linguist'Sherba'said'that'it'would'be'a'mistake'if'we'supposed'that'the'national' systems'of'any'two'languages'are'identical.'Componential'Analysis.'

W.Goodenough'first'used'the'term'“componential'analysis”.'(“Componential'Analysis' and'the'Study'of'Meaning”,'Language,'1956,'32,'1)'and'F.'Lounsbury'(“'A'Semantic'Analysis'of' the'Pawnee'Kinship'Usuage”,'Language,'1956,'32,1).'

Words' have' meanings' and' the' smallest' units' of' meaning' are' called' sememes' or' components' of' meaning.' The' word' “' woman”' has' the' following' components' of' meaning' “human”,'“female”,'and'“adult”.'

human'girl' female' woman' human'female'

young'the'component'“young”'distinguishes'the'word'“girl”'from'“woman”.' human'girl' female'

young'

boy'

human'male'

young'

Here'the'component'“male”'distinguishes'the'word'“boy”'from'“girl”.'

Componential'analysis'deals'with'meanings.'Different'meanings'of'polysemantic'words'

have'different'componential'structure.'Ex.'the'comparison'of'two'meanings'of'the'word'“boy”.' human' human'1.'a'male'child'male'2.'a'male'servant' male' young'up'to'the'age'17'or'18'

any'age'