8The first noun can show what the second is about or concerned with.

A work of fiction may be a 'detective/murder/mystery/ghost/terror/spy story. We buy bus/train/plane tickets. We pay fuel/laundry/ milk/telephone bills, entry fees, income tax, car insurance, water rates, parking fines.

Similarly with committees, departments, talks, conferences etc.:

9These categories all overlap to some extent. They are not meant to be mutually exclusive, but aim to give the student some general idea of the uses of these combinations and help with the stress.

C As will be seen from the stress-marks above:

1The first word is stressed in noun + gerund and gerund + noun combinations, when there is an idea of purpose as in B5 above, and in combinations of type B7 and B8 above.

2Both words are usually stressed in combinations of types Al. Bl-3 above, but inevitably there are exceptions.

3In place-name combinations both words usually have equal stress:

King's Road Waterloo Bridge Leicester Square

But there is one important exception. In combinations where the last word is Street, the word Street is unstressed:

Bond Street Oxford Street

3 Adjectives

17 Kinds of adjectives

AThe main kinds are:

(a)Demonstrative: this, that, these, those (see 9)

(b)Distributive: each, every (46); either, neither (49)

(c)Quantitative: some, any, no (50); little/few (5); many, much (25); one, twenty (349)

(d)Interrogative: which, what, whose (54)

(e)Possessive: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their (62)

(f)Of quality: clever, dry, fat, golden, good, heavy, square (19)

BParticiples used as adjectives

Both present participles (ing) and past participles (ed) can be used as adjectives. Care must be taken not to confuse them. Present participle adjectives, amusing, boring, tiring etc., are active and mean ‘having this effect’. Past participle adjectives, amused, horrified, tired etc., are passive and mean 'affected in this way'.

The play was boring. (The audience was bored.) The work was tiring. (The workers were soon tired.)

The scene was horrifying. (The spectators were horrified.) an infuriating woman (She made us furious.)

an infuriated woman (Something had made her furious.)

CAgreement

Adjectives in English have the same form for singular and plural, masculine and feminine nouns:

or after a verb such as (a) be, become, seem:

Tom became rich. Ann seems happy.

or (b) appear, feel, get/grow (= become), keep, look (= appear), make, smelt, sound, taste, turn:

Tom felt cold. He got/grew impatient.

He made her happy. The idea sounds interesting.

Adjectives in this position are called predicative adjectives. Verbs used in this way are called link verbs or copulas.

C Note on link verbs (see also 169)

A problem with verbs in B(b) above is that when they are not used as link verbs they can be modified by adverbs in the usual way. This confuses the student, who often tries to use adverbs instead of adjectives after link verbs. Some examples with adjectives and adverbs may help to show the different uses:

He looked calm (adjective) = He had a calm expression.

He looked calmly (adverb) at the angry crowd, (looked here is a deliberate action.)

She turned pale (adjective) = She became pale.

He turned angrily (adverb) to the man behind him. (turned here is a deliberate action.)

The soup tasted horrible (adjective). (It had a horrible taste.)

He tasted the soup suspiciously (adverb), (tested here is a deliberate action.)

D Some adjectives can be used only attributively or only predicatively, and some change their meaning when moved from one position to the other.

bad/good, big/small, heavy/light and old, used in such expressions as bad sailor, good swimmer, big eater, small farmer, heavy drinker, light sleeper, old boy/friend/soldier etc., cannot be used predicatively without changing the meaning: a small farmer is a man who has a small farm, but The farmer is small means that he is a small man physically. Used otherwise, the above adjectives can be in either position.

(For little, old, young, see also 19 B.) chief, main, principal, sheer, utter come before their nouns.

frightened may be in either position, but afraid and upset must follow the verb and so must adrift, afloat, alike (see 21 G), alive, alone, ashamed, asleep.

The meaning of early and late may depend on their position:

an early/a late train means a train scheduled to run early or late in the day. The train is early/late means that it is before/after its proper time-poor meaning 'without enough money' can precede the noun or follow the verb.

poor meaning 'unfortunate' must precede the noun.

poor meaning 'weak/inadequate' precedes nouns such as student, worker etc. but when used with inanimate nouns can be in either position:

He has poor sight. His sight is poor.

EUse of and

With attributive adjectives and is used chiefly when there are two or more adjectives of colour. It is then placed before the last of these:

a green and brown carpet a red, white and blue/lag

With predicative adjectives and is placed between the last two:

The day was cold, wet and windy.

19 Order of adjectives of quality

ASeveral variations are possible but a fairly usual order is: adjectives of

(a)size (except little; but see C below)

(b)general description (excluding adjectives of personality, emotion etc.)

(c)age, and the adjective little (see B)

(d)shape

(e)colour

(f)material

(g)origin

(h)purpose (these are really gerunds used to form compound nouns: walking stick,

Adjectives of personality/emotion come after adjectives of physical description, including dark, fair, pale, but before colours:

Blittle, old and young are often used, not to give information, but as part of an adjective-noun combination. They are then placed next to their nouns:

Your nephew is a nice little boy. That young man drives too fast. little + old + noun is possible: a little old lady. But little + young is not.

When used to give information, old and young occupy position (c) above: a young coloured man an old Welsh harp

Adjectives of personality/emotion can precede or follow young/old: a young ambitious man an ambitious young man

young in the first example carries a stronger stress than young in the second, so the first order is better if we wish to emphasise the age.

little can be used similarly in position (c):

a handy little calculator an expensive little hotel a little sandy beach a little grey foal

But small is usually better than little if we want to emphasise the size. (For little meaning 'a small amount', see 5.)

Cfine, lovely, nice, and sometimes beautiful, adjectives of size (except little), shape and temperature usually express approval of the size etc. If we say a beautiful big room, a lowly warm house, nice/fine thick steaks we imply that we like big rooms, warm houses and thick

steaks.

fine, lovely and nice can be used similarly with a number of other adjectives: fine strong coffee a lovely quiet beach a nice dry day

When used predicatively, such pairs are separated by and:

The coffee was fine and strong. The day was nice and dry.

beautiful is not much used in this sense as a predicative adjective.

Dpretty followed by another adjective with no comma between them is an adverb of degree meaning very/quite: She's a pretty tall girl means She is quite/very tall. But a pretty, tall girl or, more usually, a tall, pretty girl means a girl who is both tall and pretty.

CAdjectives of three or more syllables form their comparative and superlative by putting more and most before the positive:

DAdjectives of two syllables follow one or other of the above rules. Those ending in ful or re usually take more and most:

F farther/farthest and further/furthest

Both forms can be used of distances:

York is farther/further than Lincoln or Selby. York is the farthest/furthest town or

York is the farthest/furthest of' the three.

(In the last sentence farthest./furthest are pronouns. See 24 B.)

further can also be used, mainly with abstract nouns, to mean 'additional/extra':

Further supplies will soon be available. Further discussion/debate would be pointless.

Similarly: further enquiries/delays/demands/information/instructions etc. furthest can be used similarly, with abstract nouns;

This was the furthest point they reached in their discussion.

This was the furthest concession he would make. (For adverb use, see 32.)

Gfar (used for distance) and near

In the comparative and superlative both can be used quite freely:

the farthest/furthest mountain the nearest river

But in the positive form they have a limited use, far and near are used chiefly with bank, end, side, wall etc.:

the far bank (the bank on the other side) the near bank (the bank on this side of the river)

near can also be used with east, and far with north, south, east and west.

With other nouns far is usually replaced by distant/remote and near by nearby/neighbouring: a remote island, the neighbouring village. For far (adverb), see 32; for near (adverb or preposition), see 30 C.

Helder, eldest; older, oldest

elder, eldest imply seniority rather than age. They are chiefly used for comparisons within a family: my elder brother, her eldest boy/girl;

but elder is not used with than, so older is necessary here: He is older than I am. (elder would not be possible.)

In colloquial English eldest, oldest and youngest are often used of only two boys/girls/children etc.:

His eldest boy's at school; the other is still at home.

This is particularly common when eldest, oldest are used as pronouns: Tom is the eldest (of the two) (See 24 B.)

21 Constructions with comparisons (see also 341)

AWith the positive form of the adjective, we use as ... as in the affirmative and not as/not so ...

as in the negative:

A boy of sixteen is often as tall as his/other. He was as white as a sheet.

Manslaughter is not as/so bad as murder.

Your coffee is not as/so good as the coffee my mother makes.

BWith the comparative we use than:

The new tower blocks are much higher than the old buildings. He makes/ewer mistakes than you (do).

He is stronger than I expected = I didn't expect him to be so strong.

If was more expensive than I thought = I didn't think it would be so expensive.

When than ... is omitted, it is very common in colloquial English to use a superlative instead of a comparative: This is the best way could be said when there are only two ways. (See comparatives, superlatives used as pronouns, 24 B.)

C Comparison of three or more people/things is expressed by the superlative with the . . . in/of:

This is the oldest theatre in London.

The youngest of the family was the most successful.

A relative clause is useful especially with a perfect tense:

It/This is the best beer (that) I have ever drunk.

It/This was the worst film (that) he had ever seen. He is the kindest man (that) I have ever met.

It was the most worrying day (that) he had ever spent.

Note that ever is used here, not never. We can, however, express the same idea with never and a comparative:

I have never drunk better beer. I have never met a kinder man. He had never spent a more worrying day.

Note that most + adjective, without the, means very:

You are most kind means You are very kind.

most meaning very is used mainly with adjectives of two or more syllables: annoying, apologetic, disobedient, encouraging, exciting, helpful, important, misleading etc.

D Parallel increase is expressed by the + comparative … the + comparative: HOUSE AGENT: Do you want a big house?

ANN: Yes, the bigger the better.

TOM: But the smaller it is, the less it will cost us to heat.

E Gradual increase or decrease is expressed by two comparatives joined by and:

The weather is getting colder and colder. He became less and less interested.

FComparison of actions with gerunds or infinitives:

Riding a horse is not as easy as riding a motor cycle. It is nicer/more fun to go with someone than to go alone. (See 341.)

GComparisons with like (preposition) and alike:

Tom is very like Bill. Bill and Tom are very alike.

He keeps the central heating full on. It's like living in the tropics.

H Comparisons with like and as (both adverb and adjective expressions are shown here) In theory like (preposition) is used only with noun, pronoun or gerund:

He swims like a fish. You look like a ghost. Be like Peter/him: go jogging.

The windows were all barred. It was like being in prison.

J and as (conjunction) is used when there is a finite verb:

Do as Peter does: go jogging.

Why don't you cycle to work as we do?

But in colloquial English like is often used here instead of as:

Cycle to work like we do.

I like + noun and as + noun:

He worked like a slave, (very hard indeed) He worked as a slave. (He was a slave.)

She used her umbrella as a weapon. (She struck him with it.)

22 than/as + pronoun + auxiliary

AWhen the same verb is required before and after than/as we can use an auxiliary for the second verb:

I earn less than he does. (less than he earns) The same tense need not be used in both clauses:

He knows more than I did at his age.

BWhen the second clause consists only of than/as + I/we/you + verb, , and there is no change of tense, it is usually possible to omit the verb:

I'm not as old as you (are). He has more lime than I/we (have).

In formal English we keep I/we, as the pronoun is still considered to be the subject of the verb even though the verb has been omitted. In informal English, however, me/us is more usual:

He has more time than me. They are richer than us.

CWhen than/as is followed by he/she/it + verb, we normally keep the verb:

You are stronger than he is.

But we can drop the verb and use he/she/they in very formal English or him/her/them in very colloquial English.

These rules apply also to comparisons made with adverbs:

I swim better than he does/better than him. They work harder than we do/harder than us. You can't type as fast as I can/as fast as me.

23 the + adjective with a plural meaning

Ablind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead, rich/poor, unemployed and certain other adjectives describing the human character or condition can be preceded by the and used to represent a class of persons. These expressions have a plural meaning; they take a plural verb and the pronoun is they:

The poor get poorer: the rich get richer.

the can be used in the same way with national adjectives ending in ch or sh: the Dutch the Spanish the Welsh

and can be used similarly with national adjectives ending in se or ss: the Burmese the Chinese the Japanese the Swiss

though it is just possible for these to have a singular meaning.

BNote that the + adjective here refers to a group of people considered in a general sense only. If we wish to refer to a particular group, we must add a noun:

These seats are for the disabled.

The disabled members of our party were let in free.

The French like to eat well.

The French tourists complained about the food.

24 Adjectives + one/ones and adjectives used as pronouns

AMost adjectives can be used with the pronouns one/ones, when one/ones represents a previously mentioned noun:

Don't buy the expensive apples; get the cheaper ones.

Hard beds are healthier than soft ones. I lost my old camera; this is a new one.

Similarly with a number + adjective:

If you haven't got a big plate, two small ones will do.

B Adjectives used as pronouns

first/second etc. can be used with or without one/ones; i.e. they can be used as adjectives or pronouns:

Which train did you catch? ~ I caught the first (one). the + superlative can be used similarly:

Tom is the best (runner). The eldest was only ten. and sometimes the + comparative:

Which (of these two) is the stronger?

But this use of the comparative is considered rather literary, and in informal English a superlative is often used here instead:

Which (of these two) is the strongest?

Adjectives of colour can sometimes be used as pronouns:

I like the blue (one) best.

Colours of horses, especially bay, chestnut, grey are often used as pronouns and take s in the plural:

Everyone expected the chestnut to win. The coach was drawn by four greys.

25 many and much (adjectives and pronouns)

Amany and much

many (adjective) is used before countable nouns. much (adjective) is used before uncountable nouns:

He didn't make many mistakes. We haven't much coffee.

They have the same comparative and superlative forms more and most: more mistakes/coffee most men/damage

many, much, more, most can be used as pronouns:

He gets a lot of letters but she doesn't get many.

You have a lot of free time but I haven't much.

more and most can be used quite freely, and so can many and much, with negative verbs (see above examples). But many and much with affirmative or interrogative verbs have a restricted use.

Bmany and much with affirmative verbs

many is possible when preceded (i.e. modified) by a good/a great. Both are possible when modified by so/as/too.

I made a good many friends there. He has had so many jobs that. . .

She read as much as she could. They drink too much (gin).

When not modified, many, as object or part of the object, is usually replaced by a lot/lots of (+ noun) or by a lot or lots (pronouns).

much, as object or part of the object, is usually replaced by a great/good deal of (+ noun) or a great/good deal (pronouns):

I saw a lot/lots of seabirds. I expect you saw a lot too.

He spends a lot/lots of/a great deal of money on his house.

As subject or part of the subject, either many or a lot (of) etc. can be used, but much here is normally replaced by one of the other forms.

much, however, is possible in formal English:

Much will depend on what the minister says.

Compare negative and affirmative sentences:

He hasn't won many races. You've icon a lot/lots of races or You've won a lot or

You've won a great many (races). He didn't eat much fruit.

She ate a lot/lots of fruit/a great deal of fruit or She ate a lot/a great deal.

Cmany and much with interrogative verbs

Both can be used with how: How many times? How much?

In questions where how is not used, many is possible, but a lot (of) etcis better when an affirmative answer is expected:

Did you take a lot of photos? I expect you did.

much without how is possible but the other forms are a little more usual:

Did you have a lot of snow/much snow last year? (For much as an adverb, see 33.)

26 Adjectives + infinitives

ASome of the most useful of these adjectives are given below, grouped roughly according to meaning or type. Some adjectives with several meanings may appear in more than one group, (For adjectives + prepositions, see 96.)

Starred adjectives can also be used with that-clauses. Sometimes that … should is more usual, (See 236.).

In sections B-E, with the exception of B2, the constructions are introduced by it. (For introductory it, see 67.) If it + be … is preceded by find/think/believe etc. that it is sometimes possible to omit that and the verb be:

He found that it was impossible to study at home =

He found if impossible to study at home.

B 1 it + be + adjective (+ of + object) + infinitive is used chiefly with adjectives concerning:

(a)character: brave, careless, cowardly, cruel, generous, good/ nice (= kind), mean, rude, selfish, wicked, wrong (morally) etc., and fair*/just*/right* with negative or interrogative verbs, or

(b)sense: clever, foolish, idiotic*, intelligent, sensible, silly, stupid, absurd*, ludicrous*, ridiculous* and unreasonable* are sometimes also possible.

It was kind of you to help him. (You helped him. This was kind.)

It was stupid (of them) to lease their bicycles outside.

of + object can be omitted after group (b) adjectives, and sometimes after group (a) adjectives, except good and nice. (Omission of of + object would change the meaning of good and nice. See E.)

2Pronoun + be + adjective + noun + infinitive is also possible with the above adjectives and with a number of others, including:

astonishing*, curious*, extraordinary*, funny* (=. strange*), odd*, queer*, surprising* etc. and pointless, useful, useless

It was a sensible precaution to take. That was a wicked thing to say.

Comments of this type can sometimes be expressed as exclamations:

What a funny way to park a car! What an odd time to choose!

The adjective is sometimes omitted in expressions of disapproval:

What a (silly) way to bring up a child!

What a time to choose!

Example with a that-clause:

It is strange/odd/surprising that he hasn't answered.

Cit + be + adjective + infinitive is possible with advisable*, inadvisable*, better*, best, desirable*, essential*, good (= advisable), important*, necessary*, unnecessary*, vital* and with only + fair*/just*/right*;

Wouldn't it be better to waif? ~ No, it's essential to book in advance.

for + object can be added except after good (where it would change the meaning; see E below) and after just:

It won't be necessary for him to report to the police.

It is only fair for him to have a chance. inessential and unimportant are not normally used, but not essential is possible.

Dit + be + adjective (+ for + object) + infinitive is possible with convenient*, dangerous, difficult, easy, hard*, possible*, impossible, safe, unsafe. (For possible that, see 27 E.)

Would it be convenient (for you) to see Mr X now?

It was dangerous (for women) to go out alone after dark. We found it almost impossible to buy petrol. (See A above.)

The above adjectives, with the exception of possible, can also be used in the noun + be + adjective + infinitive construction:

This cake is easy to make.

The instructions were hard to follow. This car isn't safe to drive.

Eit + be + adjective/participle + infinitive is also possible with adjectives and participles which show the feelings or reactions of the person '^: concerned:

fun (.= an exciting experience) and a relief can be used similarly.

It's awful to be alone in such a place.

It's boring to do the same thing every day. It was depressing to find the house empty.

It would be fun/exciting/interesting to canoe down the river. It was a relief to take off our wet boots.

for + object is quite common after lovely, interesting, marvellous, nice, wonderful and possible after the other adjectives:

It's interesting (for children) to see a house being built.

It was marvellous (for the boys) to have a garden to play in.

Note that for + object placed after good restricts the meaning of good to healthy/beneficial: It's good for you to take regular exercise.

(good + infinitive can have this meaning but can also mean pleasant/kind/advisable. See B, C above.)

it + be + adjective + noun + infinitive is also possible with the above adjectives/participles:

It was an exciting ceremony to watch. It was a horrible place to lice (in).

FSomewhat similar meanings can be expressed by subject + adjective + infinitive with angry*, delighted*, dismayed*, glad*, happy*, pleased*, relieved*, sad*, sorry* and the past participles of the verbs in E above: I'm delighted to see you.

The most useful infinitives here are to find/learn/hear/see, but glad/happy/sad/sorry are also often followed by to say/tell/inform and sometimes by other infinitives:

He was glad to leave school.

She was dismayed to find the door locked.

GSubject + be + adjective/participle + infinitive with: able/unable; apt, inclined, liable, prone; prepared, not prepared (= ready/willing/unwilling), reluctant; prompt, quick, slow:

We are all apt to make mistakes when we try to hurry.

I am inclined to believe him. I am prepared/ready to help him.

He was most reluctant to lend us the money.

He was slow to realise that times had changed =

He realised only slowly that times had changed.

27 Adjectives + infinitive/that-clause/preposition constructions

Adue, due to, owing to, certain, sure, bound, confident due, used of time, can take an infinitive:

The race is due to start in ten minutes.

But it can also be used alone:

The plane was due (in) at six. It is an hour overdue. due to (preposition) means 'a result of:

The accident was due to carelessness. owing to means 'because of’:

Owing to his carelessness we had an accident.

due to should be preceded by subject + verb, but English people are careless about this and often begin a sentence with due to instead of with owing to.

certain and sure take infinitives to express the speaker's opinion. bound is also possible here;

Tom is certain/sure/bound to win. (The speaker is confident of this.)

But subject + certain/sure + that-clause expresses the subject's opinion:

Tom is sure that he will win. (Tom is confident of victory.)

confident that could replace certain/sure that above, but confident cannot be followed by an infinitive.

sure, certain, confident can be followed by of + noun/pronoun or gerund:

Unless you're early you can't be sure of getting a seat. bound can take an infinitive, as shown above, but not a that-clause. bound + infinitive can also mean 'under an obligation":

According to the contract we are bound to supply the materials.

Bafraid (of), ashamed (of), sorry (for or about)

afraid of, ashamed of, sorry for/about + noun/pronoun or gerund:

She is afraid of heights/of falling.

He was ashamed of himself (for behaving so badly)/ashamed of behaving so badly. I'm sorry for breaking your window, (apology)

I'm sorry about your window, (apology/regret) I'm sorry for Peter, (pity)

afraid, ashamed, sorry can be followed by an infinitive:

She was afraid to speak. (She didn't speak.)

!'d be ashamed to take his money. (I don't/won't take it.) I'm sorry to say that we have no news.

or by a that-clause:

I'm ashamed that I've nothing better to offer you. She's afraid (that) he won't believe her. (fear) I'm afraid (that) we have no news. (regret)

I'm sorry (that) you can't come.

(For the difference in meaning between these three constructions, see 271. For I'm afraid not/so, see 347.)

Canxious (about), anxious + infinitive, anxious that anxious (+ about + noun/pronoun) means worried:

I'm anxious (about Tom). His plane is overdue.

be anxious (+ for + noun/pronoun) + infinitive = 'to desire/to wish':

I'm very anxious (for him) to see the Carnival.

anxious + that - . . + should is possible in very formal English: The committee is anxious that this matter should be kept secret.

Dfortunate and lucky can take either a that-clause or an infinitive, but there is usually a difference of meaning. It is fortunate/lucky that usually means 'It's a good thing that':

It's lucky that Tom has a car.

It's lucky that he passed his test. (Now he can drive himself to the station/take the children to the seaside etc.)

It's lucky for us that he has a car. (He can give us a lift etc.)

Subject + be + fortunate/lucky + infinitive, however, emphasizes the subject's good fortune:

He's lucky to have a car. (Many people haven't got one.)

He was lucky to pass his test. (He wasn't really up to the standard.)

is/are + fortunate/lucky + present infinitive is used mainly with static verbs. With was/were or the continuous or perfect infinitive there is a wider choice:

You were fortunate to escape unharmed. You are lucky to be going by air.

He is lucky to have sold his house before they decided to build the new airport.

It is lucky/unlucky can, however, be followed by the infinitive of any verb:

It is unlucky to break a mirror. (It brings misfortune.)

fortunate and unfortunate are not used here but can be used in the other constructions. They are chiefly found in more formal English.

These adjectives can also be used alone or with a noun:

Epossible, probable and likely can take a that-clause introduced by it, likely can also be used with subject + infinitive

(a)It's possible that he'll come today =

(b)Perhaps he 'II come/He may come today.

(a)It's probable that he'll come today =

(b)He’II probably come today.

In each case the (b) form is more usual than the (a) but the that-clause is convenient when we want to modify the adjectives:

It's just/quite possible that. . .

It's not very probable that. . .

With likely both forms are equally useful:

It's quite likely that he'll come today = He's quite likely to come today.

is/are + subject + likely + infinitive is very useful as it supplies an interrogative form for may (= be possible):

Is he likely to ring today?

possible, probable, likely can be used without a that-clause when it is quite clear what this would be:

Do you think he 'II sell his house? ~ It's quite possible/probable/likely (that he'll sell it).

F aware and conscious take a that-clause or of + noun/pronoun or gerund;

It'll be dangerous. ~ I'm aware that it'll be dangerous/I'm aware of that. I was conscious of being watched =

I felt that someone was watching me. conscious used by itself has a physical meaning:

I had only a local anaesthetic. I was conscious the whole time.

4 Adverbs

28Kinds of adverbs

Manner: bravely, fast, happily, hard, quickly, well (see 35) Place: by, down, here, near, there, up (36)

Time: now, soon. still, then, today, yet (37)

Frequency: always, never, occasionally, often, twice (38) Sentence: certainly, definitely, luckily, surely (40) Degree: fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very (41) Interrogative: when? where? why? (60)

Relative: when, where, why (75 E)

Form and use

29 The formation of adverbs with ly

AMany adverbs of manner and some adverbs of degree are formed by adding ly to the corresponding adjectives:

grave, gravely immediate, immediately slow, slowly

Spelling notes

(a)A final y changes to i: happy, happily.

(b)A final e is retained: extreme, extremely. Exceptions: true, due, whole become truly, duly, wholly.

(c)Adjectives ending in able/ible drop the final e and add y:

capable, capably sensible, sensibly

(d) Adjectives ending in a vowel + l follow the usual rule: beautiful, beautifully final, finally

BExceptions

The adverb of good is well.

kindly can be adjective or adverb, but other adjectives ending in ly, e.g. friendly, likely,

lonely etc., cannot be used as adverbs and have no adverb form. To supply this deficiency we use a similar adverb or adverb phrase:

CSome adverbs have a narrower meaning than their corresponding adjectives or differ from them. coldly, coolly, hotly, warmly are used mainly of feelings:

We received them coldly, (in an unfriendly way) They denied the accusation hotly, (indignantly) She welcomed us warmly, (in a friendly way)

But warmly dressed = wearing warm clothes.

coolly = calmly/courageously or calmly/impudently;

He behaved very coolly in this dangerous situation.

presently = soon: He'll be here presently. (See also 30 B. For barely, scarcely, see 44. For surely, see 40 A.)