Charter 1 synonymy as a research problem and translation challenge

1. Semantic survey of synonyms

It is generally accepted that English is one of the most useful languages used by people around the world as a lingua franca. With English as an international language, people from different countries who speak different native languages are able to communicate with one another (Kirkpatrick, 2007). The language enables them to understand their interlocutor’s speech. Meanwhile, they can also impart information to others through English. As a language with a long history and considerable benefits, it is not surprising to learn the fact that there exist millions of words in English. According to several studies, English tends to have larger number of words, if not the largest, than many other languages (Crystal, 2007). Some of the words have been borrowed from other languages (Finegan, 2007). Quite a few English learners could notice that there are a number of words, known as synonyms, which share similar senses of meaning or semantic features, e.g. big and large. The concept of synonyms plays an important role in English. Learners who wish to improve their English skills really need to be aware of and master synonyms. When writing an essay, for instance, they may learn how to replace a word with its synonym so that their readers will not get bored with the piece of work.

However, it is often found that, in fact, not all synonyms can be used interchangeably in every context. One has to be used in a particular context, whereas another is appropriate for some other situations. Some synonyms differ in terms of connotations they express, and some are different in regions in which they are used. (Trudgill, 1990; Jackson & Amvela, 2000).

Synonymy in a language can be viewed as a basic concept in lexicology. When meaning relations of words are studied, most researchers are inclined to prioritize the concept of synonyms in their investigation (Harley, 2006). Etymologically speaking, the term synonymy originates from a Greek word sunonumon meaning ‘having the same name’ (Jackson & Amvela, 2000, p. 92). Linguists interested in a study of meaning in language, known as semanticists, use this term to refer to a relationship of similarity or sameness of meaning between two or more words (Jackson & Amvela, 2000).

Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2009, p. 1479) defines synonym as “a word or phrase which has the same or nearly the same meaning as another word or phrase in the same language”, such as small and little. In a study of synonyms, two major types, strict and loose synonyms, are worth being discussed.

Synonyms are normally divided into two main types: strict (absolute) and loose synonyms. As for strict synonymy, two words are considered strict synonyms if they can be used interchangeably in all of their possible contexts of use. Furthermore, the substitution of one word for the other must not result in a change in meaning, style, and connotation of what is being said or written [1]. In this case, it is the speaker’s or writer’s choice to use one or the other since either can fit in the same context.

Still, according to the above definition, such strict synonyms are extremely rare or not existent [2]. As a matter of fact, strict synonymy is considered uneconomical since it leads to unnecessary redundancy in a language.

Normally if a language begins to have a word which can fully replace another in every context of use, one of them tends to somehow change its meaning or become out of use. For example, according to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), in the history of English, the Old English word frumsceaft was widely used. Then with the flood of French words in the late 14^th century, the word creation was borrowed and it was used alongside with frumsceaft . Later on, creation took over frumsceaft completely in all contexts, making frumsceaft become obsolete. Such phenomenon is claimed to prevent the occurrences of strict synonyms in English (Jackson & Amvela, 2000).

With regard to loose synonyms, they are the most commonly found in a language. When linguists talk about synonyms, they generally refer to varying degrees of loose synonymy, “where we identify not only a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but

аlso some contexts at least where they cannot substitute for each other.” [10 p. 94].

Clear examples of loose synonyms in English are the words mad and insane, both of which generally mean ‘mentally ill’. They are interchangeable in such a context as The team of psychiatrists found out that he is mad/insane. However, when mad means ‘angry’ as in Lisa is very mad at Tim now., the word insane cannot be used in this context without a change in meaning, as in *Lisa is very insane at Tim now. Additionally, the use of insane here also violates the grammatical patterns since the combination insane at are not likely to occur in native speakers’ speech.

The above examples indicate that synonyms can be interchangeably used where their meanings overlap, but where a meaning is beyond the shared area, one cannot substitute for the other (Thornbury, 2002).

Synonyms in English can be differentiated according to the following criteria:

The first criterion one can use to distinguish synonyms is the regions where these words exist. English-speaking people speaking different dialects often use different words to refer to the same person, thing, or concept. For example, British children in a theme park would urge their parents to buy them candyfloss, a type of sweet made from sticky threads of sugar around a stick. In contrast, American children in the same situation would ask for cotton candy and get the same kind of sweet. Accordingly, it may be concluded that both candyfloss and cotton candy are the same, differing only in that the former is used in British English, whereas the latter belongs to American English.

The list below provides sample pairs of British-American synonyms.