1.5. Distributional Analysis

The distributional analysis in its various forms is commonly used nowadays by lexicologists of different schools of thougt.By the term "distribution" we understand the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same level (words relative to words \morphemes relative to morphemes ,etc).In other words,by this term we understand the position which lexical units occupy or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech.It is readily observed that a certain component of the word meaning is described when the word is identified distributionally.

It is also observed that in a number of cases words have different lexical meanings in different distributional patterns.Compare, e.g., the lexical meaning of the verb to treat in the following: to treat somebody well,kindly,etc.- "to act or behave towards" where the verb is followed by a noun + an adverb and to treat somebody to ice-cream,champagne,etc.-"to supply with food,drink,entertainment,etc. at ones own expense where the verb is followed by a noun +the preposition to +another noun.

The independenceof disrtibution and meaning can be also observed at the level of word-groups.It is only the distribution of otherwise completely identical lexical units that accounts for the difference in the meaning of water tap and tap water.Thus,as far as words are concerned the meaning by distribution may be defined as an abstraction on the syntagmatic level.

It should also be noted that not only words in word-groups but also whole word-groups may acquire a certain denotational meaning due to a definite distributional pattern to which this particular meaning is habitually attached.

As can be inferred from the above, the distributional analysis is mainly applied by the linguist to find out sameness or difference of meaning.

It was pointed out above that,as a rule ,distribution of stems in a compound word predicts a certain component of meaning as the stem that stands first is understood as modifying the one that follows.

The essential difference between grammar and lexis is that grammar deals with an obligatory choice between a comparatively small and limited number of possibilities.Lexis is thus said to be a matter of choice between open sets of items while grammar-between closed systems.

Hence,by the term"distribution" we understand aptness of a word in one of its meanings to collocate or to co-occur with a certain group,or certain groups of words having some common semantic component.

What we describe as meaning by collocation or meaning by co-occurence is actually a blend of extralinguistic and intralinguistic components of meaning.

1.6.Phraseology as a science.

Phraseology as a branch of linguistic science appeared and developed in our country. English and American linguists collect various words, word-groups, other units presenting some interest. These units are described as idioms. No attempt is made to investigate them as a separate class and lay down a reliable criterion to distinguish between word-groups and phraseological units. The first attempt to place the study of various word-groups on a scientific basis was made by the outstanding Russian linguist A.A. Schachmatov in his book "Syntax". Investigation of English vocabulary was initiated in our country by prof. A.V. Kunin whose dictionary of English idioms (1955) has valuable information in this branch of linguistics. Phraseology as a branch of linguistic science is closely connected with Semantics, Grammar and Lexicology. It has its own methods of investigation and problems for analysis.

The national peculiarity of phraseological units is revealed on all the linguistic levels: phonological, grammatical and lexical. On the phonological level, a phraseological unit is peculiar because the very combination of sounds, it consists of, is characteristic for the phonological system of this or that language.

On the lexical level, the national peculiarity of a phraseological unit lies in the fact that it often consists of the words that denote specifically national notions that are determined by the extralinguistic reality: customs, traditions, legends and historic facts of the nation, e.g., the bard of Avon, Fleet Street. The translator should be aware of the cultural and social background of such phraseological units.

One more peculiarity of phraseological units is due to the difference in thinking and cognition of human beings. Every nation has its own way of creating images. In most cases phraseological units in different languages, having the same meaning, are different in inner form and images. Compare, the phraseological units with the meaning “у когось в покорі” in English – under smb’s thumb, in Russian – под каблуком, in Ukrainian – під черевиком.Or, e.g., the “similarity” as a Ukrainian, a Russian, a Frenchman and a Bulgarian see it, may be expressed as “дві краплі води”, a German and a Check – “as two eggs”, and an Englishman – “as two peas”.

According to the degree of the national peculiarity of ph.u., all phraseological units are divided into three groups:

1) International phraseological units, which are based on universal images, e.g., the alpha and omega of smth, to discover America, to cross the Rubicon, the heel of Achilles (ахіллесова п'ята), the Trojan horse (троянський кінь), the tree of knowledge (дерево/древо пізнання), thirty pieces of silver (тридцять срібняків), Pandora's box, Herculian pillars, Gordian knot, between Scylla and Charybdis; I came, I saw, I conquered; the Ten Commandments, wise Solomon, prodigal son/to be in (the) seventh heaven

2) Locally unmarked phraseological units, which are based on neutral images, not nationally peculiar, e.g., to burn one’s fingers, to break one’s heart, to snake in the grass, a fly in the ointment (ложка дьогтю в бочці меду);, make haste slowly ( тихіше їдеш - далі будеш).

3) Locally marked phraseological units with vividly expressed national and cultural component, e.g., to catch the Speaker’s eye, to set the Thames on fire, to carry coals to Newcastle, something is rotten in the state of Denmark, to dine with Duke Humphry, to cut off with a shilling and only in Ukrainian such idioms as передати куті меду, впіймати облизня, ставити на карб, пекти раків, утерти носа, etc.

These and the like idiomatic expressions, including several proverbs and sayings, have usually absolute or near equivalents in languages of one culturally and geographically common area, e.g., to kiss the post - поцілувати замок, as pale as paper - блідий як стіна; grass widow — солом'яна вдова, measure twice, cut once - сім раз одміряй, а раз одріж; to know smth. as one knows his ten fingers - знати щось, як своїх п'ять пальців.

Practical part 2.1.The object of the investigation is adjective"to make",using distributional analysis as one of the methods of contrastive linguistics,in English and Ukrainian taking into consideration different criteria: compare and contrast the results of investigation in order to discover differences and similarities in the meaning of the verb "to make" that depends on distribution of this word and to compare the amount of distributional patterns in both languages.

Make an attempt

(V+N)

Definition:When somebody tries to do something,you can refer to what they do as a try or an attempt.

Examples: 1) We made an attempt to get in touch with them. 2) They've attempted a climb up Mount Everest once before. 3) they made an attempt on his life.

Make an appoinment

(V+N)

Definition: Shedule a meeting with someone.

Examples:1)She made an appoinment with a client at 10.30.2)I will tell my receptionist to make an appoinment for next week.3)I can make it to my appoinment without you.

Make an arrangement

(V+N)

Definition:to make plans with someone for something.

Examples:1)He said he would make arrangement for the room and his equipment.2)Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the figures.3)Connie and Howard talked to the school ,making an arrangement for graduation.

Make a bed

(V+N)

Definition:rearrange a bed and its coverings to its condition before it was slept in

Examples:1)Carmen was making the bed while Destiny slept in.2)I went to make the bed after breakfast as I was tired.

Make changes

(V+N)

Defiition:to change something in your life.

Examples:1)I will make change for the telephone for you.2)The clerk refused to make change for her for the dollar bill.

Make a decision

(V+N)

Definition:the thought process of selecting a logical choice from the available options.

Examples:1)And so I make these creative decisions and can execute them in a much ,much simpler way.2)I made the decision to move to the U.S after only one trip.

Make a complaint

(V+N)

Definition: written or spoken statement in which someone says they are not satisfied with something.

Examples:1)I wish to make a complaint .2)Should you have been delivered the wrong bin,you will,be able to make a complaint.

Make a choice

(V+N)

Definition:to select something and take in preference.

Examples:1)And I say that thats fine -the future humanity is entitled to make that choice.2)After school I have made a choice to be lawyer.

Make an excuse

(V+N)

Definition:to apologize to someone for something.

Examples:1)I made an excuse and left the meeting early.2)You dont have to make any excuses to me.

Make a mistake

(V+N)

Definition:to make something incorrect or unfortunate .

Examples:1)We made the mistake of leaving our bedroom window open.2)The mistake had been made and she had no choice but to acknowledge it and get on with her life.

Make a joke

(V+N)

Definition:to laugh at something although it is serious or important.

Examples:1)He tried to make a joke of the fact that he hadnt passed the test.2)She would make jokes about her appearance.

Make an impression

(V+N)

Definition:to produce a positive memorable effect on someone while one is present.

Examples:1)Tom made quite an impression on the banker.2)He tried to make a good impression on his girlfriends parents.

Make money

(V+N)

Definition: to make a profit in dealings.

Examples:1)And for the people who there running the gang,it was a great way,seemingly,to make a lot of money.2)But beyond the profound federal perks,married people make more people.

Make a fuss

(V+N)

Definition:to worry about or make a bother about someone or something.

Examples: 1)He made a fuss over the bill.2)Whenever they visit Grandma she makes a fuss over the children.

Make a promise

(V+N)

Definition:to tell someone that you will definitely do something.

Examples:1)She never made a promise that she didnt intend to keep.2)He made a promise her that he will buy a dog.

Make friends

(V+N)

Definition:if you know a person very well and spending and spending time with.

Examples:1)I hope that Brian will soon make friends at school.2)She is done a good job of making friends with influential reporters.

Make an offer

(V+N)

Definition:to present or proffer someone for acceptance or rejection.

Examples:1)I have made an offer on a house in the town centre.2)It seems a sound project with potential and so I advise you to make an offer for it.

Make a noise

(V+N)

Definition:to talk a great deal or complaint,to talk loudly.

Examples:1)She made a soft noise ,cuddling closer to her father.2)The more noise you make,the worse I make it for you.

Make a request

(V+N)

Definition:asking for something you want or need.

Examples:1)My friend make a polite request.2)The President made request an emergency meeting of the United Nations.

Make a speech

(V+N)

Definition:the act or faculty of speaking adrressed to the audience.

Example:1)Our President made an important speech to peoples.2)She has to make a speech at the convention.

Make after

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to run after someone or something.

Examples:1)Paul made out after Fred,who had taken Pauls hat.2)The police officer made after the robber.

Make away with

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to make someone or something disappear.

Examples:1)The robbers made away with $2,000 from the store.2)It was decided to make away with.

Make for

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to head towards,to help bring about.

Examples:1)She got up and made for the exit.2)We made for home when it started raining.

Make into

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to change someone or something so that they become something else.

Examples:1)His first record made into a star.2)The story was made into a film two years ago.

Make of

(V+Preposition)

Definition:ask someone what they make of someone or something,you want their opinion about that person or thing.

Examples:1)I dont know what to make of her behavior.2)This job is whatever you make of it.

Make out

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to complete by supplying required information,to form an opinion or idea about.

Examples:1)How is she making out in her university?2)Could you make out the bill?

Make over

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to transfer the title of (property)

Examples: 1)They made the money over to him.2)The old factory was completely made over and now is an upscale shopping centre.

Make up

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to behave in a very friendly way towards someone ,or to praise them,in order to get something for yourself.

Examples:1)She is always making up to the boss.2)I am really sorry ,I will make it up to you.

Make up for

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to take the place of something lost or damaged or to compensate for something bad with something good.

Examples:1)He sent me a present to make up for his being impolite yesterday.2)I hope this will make up for your trouble.

Make off

(V+Preposition)

Definition:to leave quickly,usually in order to escape.

Examples:1)The burglars made off before the police arrived.2)The hooligans made off when saw the police.

2.2 Коментувати

Пояснення:to express your own opinion

Приклади:1)ООН прокоментувала на останному засіданні ситуацію в Україні.2)Я прокоментував свою власну думку щодо ситуації в Украіїні на конференції.

Завдавати клопіт

Пояснення:to cause trouble or additional work.

Приклади:1)Діти завжди в ранньому віці завдають клопоту молодим батькам.2)Я прогуляв багато пар в університеті і це задало мені багато клопоту.

Зробити вибір

Пояснення:to separate and take in preference.

Приклади:1)Кожен абітурієнт має зробити правильний вибір стосовно майбутньої професії.2)Якщо ти хочеш мати міцну сімю,ти повинен зробити правильний вибір щодо майбутньої дружини.

Внести зміни

Пояснення:to return change for someone to use for some some purpose.

Приклади:1)Верховна Рада внесла зміни щодо закону про адміністративний устрій.2)Якщо тобі щось набридло ,просто треба внести зміни у своє середовище.

Зробити комплімент

Пояснення:to say some good words to anyone about character or appearance.

Приклади:1)Вона зробила їй комплімент стосовно нової зачіски.2)Я зробив їй комплімент щодо її вихованості.

Розбагатіти

Пояснення:to earn so much money or to win lottery.

Приклади:1)Недавно мій друг розбагатів,вигравши один міліон гривень.2)Можна легко розбагатіти,гравши в лотерею.

Складати список

Пояснення:A series of names,words or other items written, printed or imagined one after the other.

Приклади:1)Наша староста упорядковала і склала весь список групи.2)На день народження мого друга ми всі складали список гостей.

Зробити відкриття

Пояснення:the process of learning something that was not known before ,or of finding someone or something that was missing or hidden.

Приклади:1)Христофор Колумб зробив відкриття Америка, як континента.2)Ми зробили для себе відкриття,коли дізналися що Каспійське море є насправді озеро.

Привести до безпорядку

Пояснення:to spoil something or do it very badly.

Приклади:1)Наш уряд привів до безпорядку нашу державу.2)Після вечірки ми привели нашу кімнату до безпорядкую.

Зробити звіт

Пояснення:an account or statement describing in detail an event,situation or the like ,usually as the result of observation ,inquiry.

Приклади:1)Після кожної роботи роботодавець вимагає зробити звіт.2)Після пограбування свідка попросили скласти звіт подій.

Подзвонити

Пояснення:to call to someone .

Приклади:1)Я подзвонив до подруги,щоб назначити зустріч.2)я подзвонив до друга і запросив його на вечірку.

Заробляти

Пояснення:to earn for living.

Приклади:1)Мені портібно заробляти гроші,щоб забезпечувати сімю.2)З 15 років він почав заробляти гроші і став великим бізнесменом.

Планувати

Пояснення:to think carefully about a series of actions that you need to take in order to achieve something.

Приклади:1)Після закінчення навчання я планую поїхати десь відпочити .2)Коли ми вирішили подорожувати ми складали плани ,куди краще поїхати.

Отримувати прибуток

Пояснення:the advantage or benefit that is gained from doing something.

Приклади:1)Після довготривалої роботи я отримав свій прибуток.2)Через великий стаж він отримав прибуток у великому розмірі.

Дати дорогу

Пояснення:to clear a path for someone or something.

Приклади:1) Завжди потрібно давати дорогу пішоходом першим.2)Багато нещасливих випадків відбуваються через те,що водїі ігнорують і не дають дорогу .

Мати сенс

Пояснення:to understand someone or something.

Приклади:1)Кожна зроблена хороша справа має сенс в житті людини.2)Він зрозумів її ,коли вона попросила його вийти з кімнати.

Добитися успіху

Пояснення:the achievement of something that you planned to do or attempted to do.

Приклади:1)Він починав з дрібного бізнесу і зараз він добився великого успіху.2)Щоб добитися успіху в житті потрібно працювати над собою і йти до цілі.

Подорожувати

Пояснення:a time spent travelling from one place to another.

Приклади:1)Він любив подорожувати по Європі.2)Вони вирішили подорожувати з одного континенту на інший.

Уступити місце

Пояснення:to provide space for someone or something.

Приклади:1)Молоді люди повинні уступати місце пенсіонерам.2)Він уступив місце людині тому що бачив що їй недобре.

Робити нотатки

Пояснення:to write something down as a reminder.

Приклади:1)Під час лекції він зробив собі нотатку щоб мати інформацію для відповіді.2)Він побачив важливе оголошення і занотував його в словник

Шуміти

Пояснення:to complain or make trouble.

Приклад:1)Сімя не могла спокійно спати через те,що поверхом вище сильно шуміли.2)В гуртожитку однокімнатники сильно шуміли і не давали студенту вчитися.

Провести добре час

Пояснення:to complete a journey quickly

Приклади:1)Ми добре провели час,будучи на відпочинку в Туреччині.2)Я добре провів час з друзями на пікніку.

Зробити паузу

Пояснення:to stop working being damaged

Приклади:1)Після важкої роботи ми зробили паузу на обід.2)Ми зробили трішки паузу і пішли погуляти.

Завести розмову

Пояснення:to say things to someone who you do not know well,in order to be polite.

Приклади:1)Мій друг старався завести розмову з моєю подружкою.2)Коли усі мовчали я старався завести розмову.

Змінити місце

Пояснення:to go to a different place to live or work.

Приклади:1)Я чув що Паула зі своїм хлопцем переїхала жити окремо.2)Ми переїхали жити в центр міста.

Кинути погляд на когось

Пояснення:to look at someone with interest.

Приклади:1)Вона кинула погляд на нього і дивились весь день.2)Він кинув погляд на дівчину яка йому дуже сподобалася.

Жартувати

Пояснення:to laugh at something although it is serious or important.

Приклади:1)Він хотів пожартувати ,але його ніхто не зрозумів.2)Він любив жартувати і через це виграв КВН.

Панікувати

Пояснення:to give someone a lot of attention and treat them well.

Приклади:1)Вона почала панікувати коли Річард вилив вино на її сукню.2)Коли вона побачила що підходить сесія вона почала панікувати.

Лягати спати

Пояснення:to pull up and tidy the covers on a bed after it has been slept in.

Приклади:1)Він піднявся до спальні і пішов спати.2)Після роботи в нічну зміну він пішов спати вранці.

Вибачатися

Пояснення:to give false reasons why you cannot do something.

Приклади:1)Ти завжди вибачаєшся за те що не допомагаєш мені.2)Він накоїв багато всього і вирішив вибачитися