Text 2 regimes of the modern world

A. Western polyarchies.

Western polyarchies are broadly equivalent to regimes categorized as liberal democracies’ or even simply “democracies”. Their heartlands are therefore North America, Western Europe and Australasia, although states ranging from India and Japan to the ‘new’ South Africa all exhibit strongly polyarchical features.

The term ‘polyarchy’ is preferable to liberal ‘democracy’ for two reasons. First, liberal democracy is sometimes treated as a political ideal. Secondly, the use of ‘polyarchy’ acknowledges that these regimes fall short, in important ways, of the goal of democracy.

All states that hold multiparty elections have polyarchical features. Nevertheless, western polyarchies have a more distinctive and particular character. They are marked not only by representative democracy and a capitalist economic organization, but also by a widespread acceptance of liberal individualism.

Western polyarchies are not all alike, however. Some of them are biased in favour of centralisation and majority rule, and others tend towards fragmentation and pluralism. A system of consociational democracy is particularly appropriate to societies that are divided by deep religious, ideological, regional, cultural or other differences. Consensual or pluralistic tendencies are often associated with the following features:

• Coalition government

• A separation of powers between the executive and the assembly

• An effective bicameral system

• A multiparty system

• Proportional representation

• Federalism or devolution

• A codified constitution and a bill of rights

B. Postcommunist regimes.

The collapse of communism in the eastern European revolutions of 1989 – 1991 undoubtedly unleashed a process of democratisation that drew heavily on the western liberal model. The central features of this process were the adoption of multiparty elections and the introduction of market-based economic reforms. In that sense, it can be argued that most (some would say all) former communist regimes are undergoing a transition that will eventually make them indistinguishable from western polyarchies. Nevertheless, for the time being at least, there are reasons for treating these systems as distinct. In the first place, the heritage of their communist past cannot be discarded overnight, especially when, as in Russia, the communist system had endured for over 70 years. Secondly, the process of transition itself has unleashed forces and generated problems quite different from those that confront western polyarchies. One feature of Postcommunist regimes is the need to deal with the politico-cultural consequences of communist rule. A second set of problems stem from the process of economic transition. The ‘shock therapy’ transition from central planning to laisse2-faire capitalism, advocated by the International Monetary Fund, unleashed deep insecurity because of the growth of unemployment and inflation, and it significantly increased social inequality. Important differences between Postcommunist states can also be identified. The most crucial of these is that between the more industrially advanced and westernized countries of 'central’ Europe and the more backward ‘eastern’ states. In the former group, market reform has proceeded swiftly and relatively smoothly; in the latter, it has either been grudging and incomplete or it has given rise to deep political tensions.

C. East Asian Regimes.

The rise of East Asia in the late twentieth century may ultimately prove to be a more important world-historical event than the collapse of communism. Certainly, the balance of the world’s economy has shifted markedly from the West to the East in this period. However, the notion that there is a distinctively East Asian political form is a less familiar one. The widespread assumption has been that modernization means westernisation. Translated into political terms, this means that industrial capitalism is always accompanied by liberal democracy. However, this interpretation fails to take account of the degree to which polyarchial institutions operate differently in an Asian eon text from the way they do in a western one. Most importantly, it ignores the difference between cultures influenced by Confucian ideas and values and ones shaped by liberal individualism.

East Asian regimes tend to have similar characteristics. First, they .ire orientated more around economic goals than political ones. Secondly there is broad support for ‘strong’ government. Powerful ’ruling’ parties tend to be tolerated, and there is general respect for the state. Although, with low taxes, and relatively low public spending (usually below 30 per cent of GDP/gross domestic product/), there is little room for the western model of the welfare state, there is nevertheless general acceptance that the state as a ‘father figure’ should guide the decisions of private as well as public bodies, and draw up strategies for national development. This characteristic is accompanied, thirdly, by a general disposition to respect leader, because of the Confucian stress on loyalty, discipline and duty. Finally, great emphasis is placed on community and social cohesion, embodied in the central role accorded to the family. The resulting emphasis on what the Japanese call ‘group think’ restricts the scope for the assimilation of ideas such as individualism and human rights, at least as these are understood in the West.

D. Islamic regimes.

The rise of Islam as a political force has had a profound affect on politics in North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Asia. In some cases, militant Islamic groups have challenged existing regimes, often articulating the interests of an urban poor. Islam is not, however, and never has been, simply a religion. Rather, it is a complete way of life, defining correct moral, political and economic behavior for individuals and nations alike. Political Islam aims at the construction of a theocracy in which political and other affairs are structured according to ‘higher’ religious principles. Nevertheless, political Islam has assumed clearly contrasting forms, ranging from fundamentalist to pluralist extremes.

E. Military regimes.

Whereas most regimes are shaped by a combination of political, economic, cultural and ideological factors, some survive through the exercise, above all, of military power and systematic repression. In this sense, military regimes belong to a broader category of authoritarianism. Military authoritarianism has been most common in Latin America, the Middle East, Africa and South East Asia, but it also emerged in the post-war period in Spain, Portugal and Greece. The key feature of a military regime is that the leading posts in the government are filled on the basis of the person’s position within the military chain of command. Normal political and constitutional arrangements are usually suspended, and institutions, through which opposition can be expressed, such as elected assemblies and a free press, are either weakened or abolished.

Although all forms of military rule are deeply repressive, this classification encompasses a number of regime types. In some military regimes, the armed forces assume direct control of government. The classical form of this is the military junta, most commonly found in Latin America. This operates as a form of collective military

Government cantered on a command council of officers who usually present the three armed services: the army, navy and air force. The second form of military regime is a military-backed personalized dictatorship. In these cases, a single individual gains pre-eminence within the junta or regime. In the final form of military regime, the loyalty of the armed forces is the decisive factor, but the military leaders content themselves with ‘pulling the strings’ behind the scenes.

AFTER-READING activity

Read the text in more depth to do the ‘After-reading exercises’.

Ex. 1. Comprehension check A.

1. Why is the term «polyarchy» preferable to liberal ‘democracy’?

2. What is the distinctive feature of western polyarchies?

3. What societies is a system of consociational democracy particularly appropriate for?

4. What features are consensual or pluralistic tendencies associated with?

5. The collapse of communism unleashed a process of democratization. Name the central features of this process.

6. Some argue that former communist regimes will become indistinguishable from western polyarchies. List the counterarguments given in the text.

7. Comment on the role of the International Monetary Fund in the process.

8. Identify important differences between post-communist states.

9. The widespread assumption has been that modernization means westernization. Translate it into political terms and give all «pros» and «cons» mentioned in the text.

10. What is the aim of political Islam with its particular features?

11. What are the key features and forms of military regimes?

Ex. 2. Terminology

Match the notions with the definitions.

Notion

1. Polyarchy

2. Consociational democracy

3. Communism

4. Confucianism

5. Theocracy

6. Authoritarianism

Definition

1. ‘Rule by God’, the principle that religious authority should prevail over political authority.

2. A system of ethics that concerned itself with the twin themes of human relations and the cultivation of the self, regardless of popular consent.

3. The communal organization of social existence on the basis of the collective ownership of property, ‘Rule by many’, institutions and political processes of modern representative democracy.

4. A form of democracy that operates through power sharing and close association amongst a number of parties or political formations.

5. A belief in, or practice of government from ‘above’, in which authority is exercised.

Work with the dictionary and consult the text to do ex. 3, 4

Ex. 3. Translate from English into Russian

Their heartlands are; states, ranging from India to; these regimes fall short of the goal of democracy; some polyarchies are biased in favour of centralization; fragmentation; consociational democracy; consensual or pluralistic tendencies; a bicameral system; federalism or devolution; their communist past can’t be discarded overnight; westernized countries, grudging and incomplete reforms; to

give rise to deep political tensions; most importantly; to draw up strategies; community and social cohesion; a military-backed personalized dictatorship; ‘to pull the strings’ behind the scenes.

Ex. 4. Translate from Russian into English

Тем не менее; правление большинства; система, подходящая для общества; коалиционное правительство; разделение властей; исполнительная власть; пропорциональное представительство; падение коммунизма; начать процесс демократизации; подвергаться изменениям (переходу); последствия коммунистического правления; МВФ; отсталые восточные государства; реформа прошла быстро и относительно спокойно; в последние годы XX века; широко распространенное предположение; социальное государство; во-первых, во-вторых, в-третьих; в конце концов; верность; армия, флот и воздушные силы; поддерживать режим.

Ex. 5. Fill in the blanks in column ‘A’ with the topical vocabulary units from column ‘B’, making all necessary changes.

1. Brevity is a ... characteristic of the author’s style. A) to be suspended

2. These two weapons are ... by the distance of their use. B) to be repressed

3. This politician has a ... record of service. C) emergency

4. He is not very ... of criticism. D) to belong

5. The speaker was

exaggerating the facts so much that we couldn’t... it any longer. E) to survive

6. Peace-loving forces can be called peace-... F) survivors, survivor

7. His speech was a ... to the program of our party. G) challenging

8. ... found some connection between the accused

and the jury and ... the verdict of the H) a challenge

9. The new government is facing a ...

task of fulfilling its promises. i)Lord Advocate, to challenge letter

10. There were no ... of the earthquake

in the district but for one man, he was the sole ... J) tolerate

11. This party ... to the advocates of liberal democracy K) advocates

12. Under the military regimes normal political

and constitutional arrangements ... usually ... L) distinguishable

13. This fire extinguisher is to be used only in an ... M) distinguishing

14. They ... all the hardships of the war. N) tolerant

15. The revolt ... immediately. O) distinguished

Ex. 6. Translate into Russian paying attention to different functions of ‘one’ and ‘do’ in the sentences.

1. East Asian political form is a less familiar one.

2. This interpretation ignores the difference between cultures influenced by Confucian ideas and values and ones shaped by liberal individualism.

3. East Asian regimes tend to be orientated more around economic goals than political ones.

4. One feature of postcommunist regimes is the need to deal with the politico-cultural consequences of communist rule,

5. One can argue that most former communist regimes will become indistinguishable from western polyarchies.

6. The interpretation fails to take account of the degree to which polyarchial institutions operate differently in an Asian context from the way they do in a western one.

7. Is political participation confined to an elite body or privileged group, or does it encompass the entire population?

8. The tendency to classify communist and fascist regimes as «totalitarian», implies that western liberal democracies were fighting the same enemy in the Cold War as they had done in the Second World War.

9. They do participate in the discussion but they don’t have any say in the decision-making.

Ex. 7. Fill in the blanks with: ‘accept’, ‘adopt’, ‘admit’, ‘receive’ and their derivatives.

1. The Russian President... the invitation to take part in the work of the conference on European security, he ... warmly by his Turkish counterpart, and said that the talks were held in a friendly atmosphere. A number of documents on world peace and security ...

2. All honored guests were accorded a warm ...

3. The ... of the new declaration found ... with all peace advocates.

4. A new member ... to the Party.

5. Children are not ... to evening performances.

6. The building was under repair. The sign said «No»

Ex. 8. Fill in the blanks using modal verbs can, could, should, may.

1. On what basis have and ... regimes be classified?

2. Whereas governments ... be changed by elections, as a result of coup d’états, through dynastic succession and so on, regimes ... only be changed by military intervention from without or by some kind of revolutionary upheaval from within.

3. The heritage of the communist past ... be discarded overnight, especially when, as in Russia, the communist system had endured for over 70 years.

4. Important differences between post-communist states ... also be identified.

5. The rise of East Asia in the late twentieth century ... ultimately proves to be a more important world-historical event than the collapse of communism.

6. There is general acceptance in East Asian regimes that the state as a «father figure» ... guides the decisions of private as well as public bodies.

7. Normal political and constitutional arrangements through which opposition ... be expressed, are either weakened or abolished.

Ex. 9. Replace clauses by the Gerundial phrases

1. When the chairman finished enumerating the items on the agenda, he passed over to the main issue.

2. When the secretary was looking through the report, he came across some interesting facts.

3. After he had taken account of the current situation the defense minister commented on the recent initiatives.

4. The Party members had made all the arrangements before they held elections.

5. The orator didn’t acknowledge the criticism and went on with his speech.

6. The Labour Party gained preeminence over the Tories as it embodied its promises of cutting taxes into its new manifesto.

Ex. 10. Use the correct form of the Gerund

1. The programs had no chance of (distinguish); they looked very much alike,

2. It was a good opportunity for (advocate) his new principles of government.

3. They were accused of (conduct) the policy of laissez-faire.

4. He might be criticized for not (embody) the ideas of his party in the report.

5. He is a wonderful speaker. We couldn’t help (impress).

Ex. 11. Supply the missing prepositions:

1. He challenged his opponent ... advocating his own principles.

2. ... advocating the principle of separation of powers Montesquieu1 survived his critics.

3. What did the UN Secretary General mean ... highlighting the quest for reforms?

4. The government went on with its project ... paying attention to the plight of the repressed minorities in that country.

5. The Prime Minister could not run the risk ... contradicting the President.

6. They insisted ... challenging their opponent’s critique.

7. Some regimes survive ... exercising, above all, military power and systematic repression.

8. There are reason ... treating postcommunist systems as distinct.

Ex. 12. Translate into English:

1. Западные полиархии в широком смысле эквивалентны режимам, характеризуемым как «либеральные демократии» или просто «демократии».

2. Термин «полиархия» предпочтителен термину «либеральная демократия» по двум соображениям. Во-первых, либеральная демократия иногда рассматривается как некий политический идеал. Во-вторых, использование термина «полиархия» признает, что ее режимы по важным моментам еще далеки от цели демократии.

3. Западные полиархии отличает не только представительский характер демократии и капиталистическая организация экономики, но и повсеместное признание либерального индивидуализма.

4. Главными чертами процесса демократизации стали введение многопартийных выборов и проведение ориентированных на рынок экономических реформ.

5. Наследие коммунистического прошлого не может быть преодолено быстро, особенно там, где, как в России, коммунистическая система существовала более 70 лет.

6. Переход от централизованного планирования к свободному рынку через «шоковую терапию», за которую выступает МВФ, вызвал чувство крайней незащищенности из-за роста безработицы и инфляции и, как результат, привел к резкому углублению социального неравенства.

7. Переходный процесс раскрепостил силы и создал проблемы, значительно отличающиеся от тех, с которыми сталкиваются западные полиархии.

8. Подъем Восточной Азии в конце двадцатого века может в конечном итоге оказаться более важным мировым историческим событием, чем крах коммунизма.

9. Давно существует широко распространенное предположение, что модернизация означает вестернизацию. Переведенное на политический язык, это означает, что индустриальный капитализм всегда сопровождается либеральной демократией,

10. Однако, такая интерпретация не учитывает, до какой степени действуют различно полиархические институты в азиатском контексте, от таких же в западном. Более того, она игнорирует разницу между культурными традициями, находящимися под влиянием конфуцианских идей и ценностей, и культурой и традициями, сформированными либеральным индивидуализмом.

11. В восточно-азиатских регионах существует широкая поддержка «сильного» правления и уважения к «государству».

12. В центре конфуцианской этической системы лежат верность, дисциплина и долг. Большое внимание уделяется общинности и социальной целостности, которые воплощены в центральной роли, отводимой семье.

13. Главное внимание, уделяемое тому, что японцы называют «групповым мышлением», ограничивает масштабы ассимиляции таких идей, как индивидуализм и права человека, по крайней мере так, как они понимаются на Западе.

14. Большинство режимов формируются в результате комбинаций различных политических, экономических, культурных и идеологических факторов, однако, некоторые из них выживают благодаря применению, главным образом, военной силы и систематических репрессий. В этом смысле, военные режимы относятся к более широкой категории авторитаризма.

15. Такие институты, как избираемые (законодательные) собрания и свободная пресса либо ослаблены, либо запрещены военными режимами.

16. При некоторых военных режимах вооруженные силы берут на себя прямой контроль над управлением страной через офицерские советы командования (хунты). Другая форма, поддерживаемая военными, — персонифицированная диктатура. Существует еще одна форма военного режима, при которой военные ограничиваются ролью кукловодов за сценой, т.е. когда решающим фактором сохранения режима является лояльность вооруженных сил.

17. Ислам никогда не был и не является просто религией. Он оказывает влияние на все стороны жизни, определяя правила морального, политического и экономического поведения как отдельных людей, так и целых государств.

18. Политический ислам ставит своей целью создание теократии, в которой политические и другие отношения строятся в соответствии с «высшими» религиозными принципами.

Ex. 13. Translate the sentences into Russian. Watch some uses of the Definite article

1. What gives Rousseau’s model its novel character is his insistence that freedom ultimately means obedience to the general will.

2. On the basis of public/private division, politics is restricted to the activities of the state itself and the responsibilities exercised by public bodies: the apparatus of government, the courts, the police, the army, the state- security system and so on.

3. The most grotesque example of ‘government for the people’ was found in the so-called totalitarian democracies.

4. There are two key features of the legitimate process: the first is the existence of elections and party competition.

5. Legitimacy must be demonstrated by an expression of consent on the part of the governed.

6. The definition can be narrowed still further. (Это/данное определение...)

7. The link between politics and the affairs of the state also helps to explain why negative connotations have so often been attached to politics. (Связь, существующая между...)

8. The interest in classifying political systems stems from two sources. (Нынешний/постоянно существующий интерес к...)

Ex. 14. Translate the words in brackets into English