Exercise 6

Change sentences with modal verbs and their equivalents into indirect speech.

1. "If what you have said is true I must go to the police," he said. 2. "You don't need to come in tomorrow," said my employer. "You may take a day off." 3. "I'll be busy next week and won't be able to help you," she said to us. ''Besides this text must be typed and as for me, I cannot type, so I'll have to ask somebody to do it," she added. 4. The official said, "This passport photo isn't like you at all. You must have another one taken." 5. "I needn't get up till nine tomorrow," I said. 6. "I must go to the dentist tomorrow," she said to me. "I have an appointment." 7. "I will go to bed. I had to get up very early today," he said. 8. "I couldn't meet her, I was working," he said. 9. "Ann's English is very poor. She must study very hard," the teacher said. 10. "Something was wrong with the receiver, I could not hear you well yesterday," she said.

Exercise 7

Translate into English paying attention to the sequence of tenses.

1, Я знав, що вона ще не прочитала листа. 2. Вона вважала, що ананаси ростуть на деревах. 3. Він сказав нам, що заплатив борги (pay one's debts) місяць тому. 4. Вона сказала, що пише цей твір (composition) вже три години. 5. Вона не знала, чи успішно скінчилась (be a success) операція. 6. Том зателефонував в поліцію і сказав, що всі його речі украдені. 7. Капітан наказав усім піднятися на борт (get aboard). 8. Вони не знали, чи будуть опубліковані результати їх дослідів 9. Я думав, що він працює, і не зайшов у кімнату. 10. Він попросив, щоб вона не турбувалась. 11. Я не знаю, коли він приїде до Полтави. 12. Вони поцікавались, чи був я коли-нибудь закордоном (abroad). 13. Він сказав їм, що вони не повинні говорити про це зараз. 14. Наш гід (guide) розсказав нам, що палац (castle) бул побудований в 14-ому столітті. 15. Я сподіваюсь, що новий міст буде побудований в наступному році.

Exercise 8

Change the following into indirect speech paying attention to conditional sentences.

1. "I'll put a book into your briefcase in case you want to read," Mother said. 2. He said, "If she follows my advice, all will turn out well." 3. "Annette will have come to Paris in an hour if there are^vno delays," Pete thought. 4. "These letters must be sent immediately as soon as they are translated," the manager said. 5. "I'll take you out for a walk after I have seen the film," he said to his dog. 6. "I am sure she will sing to us provided we ask her," he whispered. 7. "If she trains hard she will win the Cup," the trainer said. 8. "If she stays in bed for a couple of days, she will be all right in a week," the doctor said to the mother. 9. "If the train comes on time we'll be able to see the football match," he said to me. 10. She said, "I won't come if I am not invited."

Самостійна робота

Exercise 1 Cange the sentences as in the model

Model:

The captain says that his ship's speed is 17 knots.

The captain said that his ship's speed was 17 knots.

1. I know that your ship took part in the Antarctic expedition.

2. He thinks that he will sail on a training ship.

3. The passenger says that he can speak English quite well.

4. They say that their ship carries cargo and passengers.

5. The captain wants to know who asked for him.

6. The engineer says that the engine is in good order.

7. My friend says that he has little time for reading detective stories.

8. I think that they had their practice in July.

9. We know that he must be on board at 9 o'clock.

10. We don't think that the wind will blow from the North.

Exercise 2 Change the following into indirect speech

Model:

"I want to sit in the armchair", said the boy.

The boy said that he wanted to sit in the armchair.

1. The secretary said to me: "The delegation arrived in London yesterday".

2. "Open the window, please", she said to me.

3. He said: ''I shall light a fire and make myself breakfast".

4. "Don't run to the door when you hear the bell", said the woman to her little daughter.

5. She asked me: ''How long are you going to stay here?"

6. Mary asked me: "Will you spend your vacation in Moscow?"

7. "Lock the door when you leave the house", said my elder sister to me.

8. "Have you received a telegram from your wife?'' she asked Robert.

9. Mabel said: ''Nothing will change my decision and I shall leave for Cap Foron tonight".

10. "Please, don't smoke in the room", said the old woman to her nephew.

11. "I am shivering with cold", said the girl.

Lesson 7

MACHINE ELEMENTS

SCREW FASTENINGS

Machine parts are held together by parts: (a) working in tension, (b) working in shear, (c) creating friction, and (d) using both shear and friction forces.

Types of Fastenings.— All fastenings can be divided into two classes — disconnectable fastenings and permanent joints.

Disconnectable fastenings, in turn, are effected by: (a) bolts and screws, (b) wedges, (c) dowel pins, (d) keys.

Permanent joints are obtained by means of: (a) press fits, (b) shrink fits, (c) rivets, (d) welding, brazing, soldering, and (e) casting.

Forms of Threads.— Screw fastenings are used for holding two or more machine parts together or for adjusting one part with relation to another. In screw fastenings the threads arc made in several forms but are always of triangular-type single thread.

Screw threads are made right-hand and left-hand.

PINS

Geometrically pins can be divided into cylindrical pins, called straight pins, and conical or taper pins Dynamically pins can be classified as those used only to locate the relative position of two parts when there is little or no force acting upon the pin, and those that fasten two or more parts together and are subjected to considerable stresses, which are mostly in shear but sometimes in bending. Locating pins are called dowel pins or simply dowels. A connecting pin, like a dowel, may be used either as a permanent connection or as a fulcrum for a movable joint.

KEYS

Types of Keys.— The main function of a key is to transmit torque between a shaft and a machine part assembled on it. In most cases keys prevent relative motion, both rotary and axial. In some constructions keys allow an axial motion between the shaft and the hub, such keys are called feather or spline keys. In spite of the tendency to standardize there are many key types in use by various manufacturers.

According to various characteristics keys can be distinguished as straight and tapered; rectangular, dovetailed, chamfered round, and disk-shaped; radial and tangential; and (according to their use) for light duty and for heavy duty.

NOTES AND COMMENTARY

is to (+Inf.)—складається з того що chamfered round key — циліндрична шпонка

feather or spline key — направляюча disk-shaped key — дисковидна

або призматична шпонка шпонка

in spite of — незважаючи на radial and tangential key — радиаль-

to be in use — застосовуватись пна або тангенціальна шпонка

according to — згідно for light and for heavy duty—для

dovetailed key — шпонка у вигляді лас- малих та великих навантажень

точкіного хвоста

RIVETED JOINTS

General Remarks.— Riveting has been the standard method of joining plates and structural parts before welding began to replace it with increasing rapidity.

Rivets.— A rivet is a round bar consisting of an upset end called the head, and a long part called the shank. The rivet shank is heated to a red glow, inserted into one of the holes, and, while the head is held firmly against the plate by a heavy sledge, the projecting end is formed into a second head, called the point, by means of a hand hammer and set or by a press.

Button heads are used for small rivets which are driven cold; pan heads are used chiefly in ship work; countersunk heads are used only in special cases, chiefly in structural work and below the water line in ships; the countersunk points weaken the plate so much that they should be used only when unavoidable; the others, including button heads, are used in boiler and structural work.

BEARINGS

A bearing is a machine part which supports a moving part and confines its motion. That part of a shaft which rotates in a bearing is called a journal. Bearings in which one rubbing surface slides over another are called plain bearings and may be divided into two classes: those with a continuous rotary motion and those with an intermittent motion. To the first class belong journal bearings, which carry a load acting at right angles to the shaft axis, and thrust bearings, which take a load acting in the direction of the shaft axis. To the second class belong bearings of parts having a rocking motion, as wrist pins, or a linear reciprocating motion, as crossheads. Bearings with a continuous rotary motion form the great majority of all bearings.

Bearing Failures.— The failure or need of replacement of a be­aring with sliding contact may be due to:

(a) excessive wear of the bearing surfaces;

(b) overheating; or

(c) cracking of the bearing metal.

Excessive Wear.— Wear is caused by metal-to-metal contact. It cannot be entirely eliminated but can be reduced by providing a suf­ficient bearing area and by adequate lubrication.

Overheating, if not stopped in time, may cause either seizure of the journal if it runs in a hard-metal bearing or melting of the bearing surface if the bearing is lined with a metal having a low-melting temperature. Overheating is primarily caused by metal-to-metal contact. Lubrication decreases the danger of overheating.

Cracking of the bearing metal is due to heavy shock loads, such as are taking place in the running gear of internal combustion engines when the compressive stresses in the bearing metal exceed its endurance limit.

PRESS, SHRINK, AND FRICTION JOINTS

Definitions.— A press joint, also called a force joint, is obtained by forcing a shaft into a hole that is slightly smaller than the shaft. This is possible because of the elasticity of the materials which produces the grip that holds the hub and shaft together.

A shrink joint differs from a press joint chiefly by the method of assembling it. The hub is heated to expand its bore and to slip it on the shaft. When the hub cools down to the temperature of the shaft, the grip is produced in the same way as in the force joint. The shrink joint is also used to connect machine parts by means of special rings, anchors, and tie rods.

In a friction joint the holding grip is produced by the conical shape of the shaft end and the hub bore and by the pull of a nut, or by a slotted hub whose bore is smaller than the shaft and which is spread by a wedge when the joint is being assembled.

Comparison of Joints.— The assembling of a shaft and a hub by means of a press joint is simpler than that with a shrink joint especially if a hydraulic press of a sufficient capacity is available. Shrink joints are used mainly in places where it is difficult or impossible to assemble a press joint, as in the case of rings or anchors. On the other hand, shrink joints assemblies with the same interference as press joints give more than three times the holding power against both torsion and axial pull. This superior effectiveness is due to the absence of abrasion between the surfaces of the shaft and the hub during assembly.

All three joints are used when machine parts must be connected more securely than can be accomplished with a key or screw joint, especially when they are subjected to shock or vibration.

Summary

A summary is a brief account that contains the main points of something. Some examples that you hear or see almost everyday are news reports given on the radio ot TV. Students often have to write summaries of books they have read. Writing a summary lets you, or your teacher, know how much you understood of what you read or saw. Summaries are a great way to remember what has happened.

When you write a summary, you first look for the most important ideas.

Then, you then put all the main ideas together, in a logical order.

How to Write a Summary in 8 Easy Steps

Writing a good summary demonstrates that you clearly understand a text...and that you can communicate that understanding to your readers. A summary can be tricky to write at first because it’s tempting to include too much or too little information. But by following our easy 8-step method, you will be able to summarize texts quickly and successfully for any class or subject.

1) Divide…and conquer. First off, skim the text you are going to summarize and divide it into sections. Focus on any headings and subheadings. Also look at any bold-faced terms and make sure you understand them before you read.

2) Read. Now that you’ve prepared, go ahead and read the selection. Read straight through. At this point, you don’t need to stop to look up anything that gives you trouble—just get a feel for the author’s tone, style, and main idea.

3) Reread. Rereading should be active reading. Underline topic sentences and key facts. Label areas that you want to refer to as you write your summary. Also label areas that should be avoided because the details—though they may be interesting—are too specific. Identify areas that you do not understand and try to clarify those points.

4) One sentence at a time. You should now have a firm grasp on the text you will be summarizing. In steps 1–3, you divided the piece into sections and located the author’s main ideas and points. Now write down the main idea of each section in one well-developed sentence. Make sure that what you include in your sentences are key points, not minor details.

5) Write a thesis statement. This is the key to any well-written summary. Review the sentences you wrote in step 4. From them, you should be able to create a thesis statement that clearly communicates what the entire text was trying to achieve. If you find that you are not able to do this step, then you should go back and make sure your sentences actually addressed key points.

6) Ready to write. At this point, your first draft is virtually done. You can use the thesis statement as the introductory sentence of your summary, and your other sentences can make up the body. Make sure that they are in order. Add some transition words (then, however, also, moreover) that help with the overall structure and flow of the summary. And once you are actually putting pen to paper (or fingers to keys!), remember these tips:

Write in the present tense.

Make sure to include the author and title of the work.

Be concise: a summary should not be equal in length to the original text.

If you must use the words of the author, cite them.

Don't put your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary. The purpose of writing a summary is to accurately represent what the author wanted to say, not to provide a critique.

7) Check for accuracy. Reread your summary and make certain that you have accurately represented the author’s ideas and key points. Make sure that you have correctly cited anything directly quoted from the text. Also check to make sure that your text does not contain your own commentary on the piece.

8) Revise. Once you are certain that your summary is accurate, you should (as with any piece of writing) revise it for style, grammar, and punctuation. If you have time, give your summary to someone else to read. This person should be able to understand the main text based on your summary alone. If he or she does not, you may have focused too much on one area of the piece and not enough on the author’s main idea.

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