Преступность: врожденное и приобретенное
Более ста лет назад итальянский врач Чезаре Ломброзо создал галерею «преступных типов».
Он, например, утверждал, что покатый лоб, квадратный подбородок, грубые черты лица, длинные руки и мускулистое телосложение говорят о врожденных (innate) преступных наклонностях (propensities).
Понадобилось много лет, пока теория прирожденного (inborn) преступника потеряла свое влияние. Тем не менее, и в наши дни продолжаются споры о наследовании преступных качеств и о биологических предпосылках (prerequisite) преступного поведения.
Послевоенный экономический рост породил (to cause) у западных лидеров опасное заблуждение (delusion), что с любыми общественными проблемами можно справиться, проводя социальную политику и увеличивая бюджетные отчисления (deduction). Тогда казалось, что давая человеку больше благ, можно изменить его природу. Времена изменились, и стало ясно, что ни либеральные реформы, ни коммунистический диктат не привели к обществу процветания (prosperity).
Исследование, проведенное в Дании показало, что дети преступников, даже если их воспитывать в домах законопослушных (law-abiding) граждан, в большей степени склонны к конфликтам с законом, чем их собственные. Более того, есть все основания считать, что, если один из разлученных близнецов (parted twins) имеет судимость за уголовное преступление, второй рано или поздно тоже станет преступником.
Некоторые исследователи считают, что первопричина многих видов правонарушения, в первую очередь таких тяжких, как убийства, разбойные нападения, изнасилования и поджоги – не социальная, а биологическая.
Text C Partakers in a Crime
Task: read the text, focus on its main points.
The common law created a sophisticated system for determining the liability of all persons involved in the commission of a crime. When, where, and how the various parties could be prosecuted, and the use of evidence at trial, depended on the type of participation.
The person who commits the crime is the perpetrator, the principal (though two or more persons may be perpetrators, for example, "group rape" or conspiracy). The person who plays a secondary role, assists the principal, is the accomplice, the accessory.
Principals may be either in the first or in the second degree1, while accessories may be either before or after the fact2.
A principal in the first degree is the person who actually did the criminal act or was guilty of criminal omission, either with his own hand or through an innocent agent, e.g. a child.
A principal in the second degree is the person who, without actually taking part, is present at the commission of a crime. An accessory before the fact is one who, without being present at its commission, advises or procures it to be done, and does not countermand it before it is done.
An accessory after the fact is one who assists or permits the escape of the criminal.
Thus, accomplices may be charged with procuring an offence, abetting, aiding or counselling. Sometimes aiding and abetting are regarded as meaning much the same thing.
The system has not solved all problems, because the line between committing a crime and aiding in its commission is a fine one. Though principals and accomplices are usually considered equally culpable, in practice judges often impose lighter sentences on accomplices.
Notes:
principals in the first or in the second degree – исполнители первой и второй степени (лица, фактически совершающие преступление или оказывающие пособничество в совершении преступления)
accessories before or after the fact – соучастники до или после совершения преступления (подстрекатели или укрыватели)
E
x.
1. Fill
in the following chart and comment on it.
Ex. 2. Here are the answers to some questions to the text. What are the questions?
The person who commits the crime is the perpetrator. (special)
Principals may be either in the first or in the second degree. (alternative)
A person did the criminal act with his own hand. (special)
An accessory after the fact assists or permits the escape of the criminal. (alternative)
Sometimes aiding and abetting are regarded as meaning much the same thing. (disjunctive)
Text D Juvenile Delinquency
Task: read the text and list the main causes of juvenile delinquency.
In Britain a minor for most legal purposes is a person under the age of eighteen. Under the Children and Young Persons Act 1969 minors over 14 are presumed to be fully responsible for their actions. Children under the age of 10 are, in the eyes of law, deemed to be incapable of performing a crime.
A young person is judged capable of criminal intentions in the same way as an adult. A great percentage of adult offenders started their careers as criminals between 14 and 21 years of age. About 80% of chronic juvenile offenders later become chronic adult offenders.
In many countries the meaning of juvenile delinquency is so broad that it embraces practically all manifestations of juvenile behaviour. Thus, disobedience, stubbornness, lack of respect, smoking, collecting cigarette butts, hawking and the like are considered as juvenile delinquency. Even in highly civilized countries such as the United States and Sweden complete statistics on juvenile offenders are not available.
Juvenile delinquency is often regarded as a social problem, it is mostly the result of poor living conditions. Therefore, the improvement of these conditions is recommended as a way of preventing juvenile delinquency. Studies show that juvenile delinquency tends to increase rapidly in cities or countries undergoing economic and social changes.
Psychological factor is also called among factors causing juvenile delinquency. Tension, lack of affection, aggressiveness, frustration and the like often lead to crimes. Thus, satisfaction of emotional needs of minors is of particular importance. The disintegration of the family and the lowering of moral standards are also contributory causes of juvenile delinquency.
Treatment of young offenders embraces all types of methods of social rehabilitation and measures, including disciplinary measures and punishments. There should be a system of individualized treatment. Therefore, punishment may be understood to mean, among other things, fines, restitution, compulsory attendance at particular centres or institutions, detention and deprivation of liberty. The selection of staff in charge of treatment is particularly important in the treatment of juvenile offenders.
Despite the large number of theoretical and empirical studies on male delinquent subcultures, little was known about female delinquent subcultures until recently. Female delinquent subcultures, like their male counterparts, were composed of members who had been frustrated in their efforts to achieve the goals (respectability, marriage, status). They thus had drifted into a subculture that offered them substitute status, albeit outside legitimate society. Drug use and prostitution became all but inevitable among mostly lower-class females.
Ex. 1. Put the following sentences in the logical order.
Psychological factor is called among factors causing juvenile delinquency.
Juvenile delinquency is often regarded as a social problem.
In the eyes of law, children under the age of 10 are incapable of performing a crime.
Treatment of juvenile offenders embraces all types of methods and measures, including disciplinary measures and punishment. In many countries the meaning of juvenile delinquency is so broad that it embraces all manifestations.
A great percentage of adult offenders started their criminal careers between 14 and 21 years of age.
Ex. 2. Explain and expand on the following:
A young person is judged capable of criminal intentions in the same way as an adult.
The disintegration of the family is also a contributory cause of juvenile delinquency.
The selection of staff in charge of treatment is particularly important in the treatment of juvenile offenders.
Text E Kidnap Suspect for Trial
Task: fill in the following verbal phrases from the box in the right form to complete the sentences.
-
to be accused
to be charged
to stand trial
to be arrested
to handle negotiations
A British businessman who ... ... of being involved in a 1,5 million pounds’ kidnap plot is ... ... in West Germany after a successful extradition1 action.
Alan Rees, aged 35, a businessman ... ... with being concerned in the kidnap of a manager of Air Lufthanse.
He was also accused of ... ... for ransom2.
Mr Rees ... ... when he returned to the United Kingdom and banknotes used for ransom were found in his possession.
Mr Clive Nicholls, for the defence, said the case was “unsatisfactory and disturbing”.
(from "The Times")
Notes:
extradition – выдача преступника
ransom – выкуп